As part of a research project led by T. A. Chikisheva, comprehensive studies of anthropological materials from the Sopka-2 burial ground dating back to different chronological periods were initiated in 2003 (the author of the excavations was V. I. Molodin).

Based on a special program of anthropological examination of fossil materials for the reconstruction of the natural and social environment [Istoricheskaya Ekologiya..., 1998], various morphological and pathological changes were described in the bone remains of 595 individuals of different sexes and ages. Since the completeness of skeletons was selectively determined during the long-term excavation of the collection, only 345 of the total number of individuals studied were left with postcranial skeletal bones of varying degrees of preservation. Therefore, the planned statistical study of some indicators of physiological stress could not be fully implemented. Nevertheless, the large number of the series and the division of the main mass into chronological periods according to archaeological cultures * allowed us to detect and confirm some trends in the distribution of different groups of morphological and pathological markers.

The presented work reflects only a part of the research carried out and deals with several important problems for archeology. First, it is a reconstruction of the social environment of the studied population and an analysis of the relationships of various social categories in the group, carried out using the methods of anthropology. It is known that the indicator of the prevalence of cranial injuries is a kind of marker of aggressiveness and poor social atmosphere in the population. In addition, the nature and localization of fractures on the skeleton indirectly indicate a certain social environment in which certain traumatic situations could develop. Therefore, the analysis of characteristic injuries and injuries on the skull and bones of the skeleton provides information that indirectly indicates the social relationships in the ancient group. Paleopathological analysis of skeletal series of certain chronological periods has repeatedly demonstrated the correctness of this thesis (see, for example, review: [Buzhilova, 2005]).

Secondly, it is a study of skeletal injuries that reflect manipulations with the head and body. The diverse social experience of handling the human body can be expressed on the anthropological material in the form of perforations, incisions, depressed fractures, and violations of bone integrity in certain topographic zones. These are, first of all, the consequences of decapitation, scalping, ritual fragmentation of the body, cannibalism, and so on. [Buzhilova, Vnukov, and Antipina, 1999; Mednikova and Lebedinskaya, 1999; Mednikova, 2000; Buzhilova et al., 2002; Syrovatko and Kozlovskaya, 2004].

Part of the manipulations related to injuries on the skull, as a result of differential diagnosis

The authors are grateful to A. E. Grishin for providing information on the distribution of materials from the burial ground among archaeological cultures.

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it can be attributed to trepanations. It should be noted that the therapeutic aspects of such surgical treatment of the skull are closely intertwined with the ritual ones. Based on the data of paleopathology, we can conclude that even in the early epochs, many variants of trepanations are the consequences of surgical intervention in the treatment of cranial injuries. Nevertheless, there is an important layer of observations showing that trepanation can also be considered as a means of transformation and initiation, since as a cultural phenomenon of the ancient world it is on a par with other "methods of transformation": psychotropic substances, ecstatic dances, masks and other phenomena well known to ethnologists. In this action, in the most archaic form, one can trace the original syncretism of human thinking, which united the rudiments of art, religion, and pre-scientific ideas about nature and society in an unbroken unity [Mednikova, 2001].

Materials for reconstruction of everyday situations

A considerable number of skulls examined - 211 male, 259 female and 125 indeterminate individuals (including 37 children and adolescents) - showed that injuries and injuries on the skull are characteristic of the adult population.

Conventionally identified injuries on the skull can be divided into two categories:: 1) with elements of healing of bone tissue in places of violation of its integrity; 2) post-mortem and/or received shortly before death or at the time of it. Thanks to the differential diagnosis performed, each of the selected groups has its own options.

Injuries with signs of bone healing occur in 4.7 % of cases in the male and 4.3% of cases in the female sample (10 and 11 cases, respectively). These are average values for indicators of cranial injuries, but the absence of regular sexual dimorphism indirectly indicates some social tension that may have existed in certain chronological periods. Its objective causes can be reconstructed only with the comprehensive involvement of sources.

Let's consider the identified options for reconstructing the social environment in which the injuries could have been sustained. Men of mature (N 62 "A", mound 6, border 10) and young (N 325) age showed healed fractures of the nasal bones. In the first case, the injury was received from a direct contact blow, in the second - from a blow from the right side, i.e. in the first episode, the man did not have time to react to the blow, and in the second - deviated to the left from the right hook. These individuals are carriers of the Krot culture at different stages. A healed fracture of the nasal bones from a right blow was also recorded in a young man (N 630), whose burial dates back to the Fedorov stage of the Andronovo culture. The category of facial injuries can also include damage to the front teeth of a mature man (N 400, mound 57, border 5) (Fig. 1). The features of the burial complex indicate that it belongs to one of the stages of the Krotovo culture.

In the female sample, healed nasal bone fractures were recorded in eight cases. These are young and mature individuals (N 81 "B"; 140; 171 "C", mound 22, border 26; N 180 "A"; 235, mound 25, border 17; N 351; 479, mound 60, border 1; N 656 "A"). By the nature of the injuries, it can be concluded that most of them were received from a direct blow and in one case-from a left blow, i.e. the woman, trying to evade, retreated slightly back and to the right. The overwhelming majority of individuals of the female subgroup are carriers of the Krot culture, only two are dated to the earlier (Ygrekov culture, N 656 "A") and later (early Turks, N 351) epochs. Another case of facial trauma in a mature woman also belongs to the period of the Krotovo culture (No. 44, mound 4, border 1). This is a consequence of a blow to the face in the area of the front teeth of the upper jaw. Some of the crowns are broken. In addition, a change in the color of injured teeth is recorded due to the general inflammatory process.

Thus, isolated facial injuries are most common in women (3.5 %) and less common in men (1.9%). Please note that the explanation for the relatively high level of injuries in the female part of the Krotovo population definitely lies in the plane of tender relationships, since half of the healed cranial injuries in women are the consequences of a blow to the nose (6 out of 11 observations). Obviously, men allowed themselves to sort things out by physical force, and judging by the nature of facial injuries, women did not shy away from the inevitable reprisal.

Other injuries to the skull also indicate elements of direct aggression. So, several individuals recorded various kinds of damage to the frontal bone caused by weapons with a sharp, possibly cutting edge. In fact, just like those described above, these are injuries from a direct blow from an attacker located face to face with the victim. The skulls of two mature males (N 86, mound 12, border 5 and N 181, grave 59) show healed defects ranging in length from 2 to 3.5 cm and not exceeding 1 cm in width. These scars are located either in the center of the frontal bone, or with a deviation to the left side, i.e. the blow was inflicted by a right-handed person. Note that these individuals are carriers of different archaeological cultures: Krotovskaya (N 181) and Early Turks (N 86). In a large female sample, only one similar case was recorded - on the skull

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a young girl (Krotovskaya culture) was dissected in the supraorbital region on the left (N 81 "B", mound 11, border 4). In addition, a healed fracture of the nasal bones was found on it. As you can see, the number of healed facial injuries from being hit with a sharp-edged weapon is small. This may be the result of random acts of aggression that do not reflect any mass clashes in the region. However, indirect evidence of the presence of weapons that cause trauma to the facial region, which rarely ends in healing, indicates that such episodes occurred in the lives of carriers of several cultures, mainly Krotovskaya and early Turks.

Two other types of injuries differ from the previous ones in localization: they are marked on the parietal bones and in the occipital region. These are healed scars and the consequences of depressed fractures. Variants are combined by the similarity of the positions of the attacker and the victim - all blows are delivered from behind and right-handed.

Two skulls of men of different ages are marked with oblong scars on the parietal bones on the left side (mound 60, border 80, tr. V; N 341 "B"). The length of the scars does not exceed 1-2 cm, which indirectly indicates a sliding trajectory of blows. Probably, despite the fact that the attacker was behind, the victim managed to react to aggressive actions, trying to evade. One individual is identified as a carrier of the Ygrekov culture (N 341), the cultural affiliation of the other is not determined.

Depressed blunt-force injuries to the occipital region were noted not only in men (N 7, mound 1, border 7; N 394, mound 55, border 1; N 459, mound 58, border 60; N 607 "D"), but also in women (N 647). The size of the dents is small, probably the blows were caused by not very heavy objects. Perhaps these are the consequences of domestic injuries that are characteristic of different social groups. Such damages were noted both in the Krotovo (N 7, 459), Igrekov (N 607), Podchevash (N 647) cultures and in the early Turks (N 394).

Skull injuries without signs of healing are more controversial, as it is difficult to assess the reality of the perfect manipulation. Nevertheless, repetitions of characteristic injuries in a certain area of the skull and the absence of" fresh " chips at the site of the defect may indicate that these are post-mortem injuries that reflect the consequences of aggression at the time of the individual's death or shortly before it, or ritual manipulations (the latter will be discussed in a special section).

We observed 21 cases of injuries without signs of healing (11 and 10 cases in men and women, respectively). In the male sample, the proportion and diversity of such injuries is noticeably higher than in the female sample (5.2 % vs. 3.9 %). Analysis of defects by the type of functional analogies allowed us to identify several variants of injuries. Some of them resemble the localization of the injuries discussed above with elements of healing. These are scars from blows to the frontal bone in men (N 475, 491, 594) and women (N 102, mound 15, border). 8; N 257, mound 25, border 39; N 267, mound 25, border 49; N 317, mound 28, border 1; N 508, mound 60, border 30). Similar injuries were recorded mainly in representatives of the Krotovo population. Two individuals (N 102, 317, women) can be attributed to the early Turks and one (N 267, woman) - to the carriers of the Podchevash culture. The length of scars, as in cases of healed injuries, does not exceed 3.5 cm (Figs. 2, 3). On several skulls, both men (N 62 "A", mound 6, border 10; N 573 "East") and women (mog. 60; N 548; 577 "C") noted the consequences of chopped blows in the parietal-occipital region. Moreover, the damage was caused on a tangent. All the victims are carriers of the Krotovo culture, with the exception of one whose cultural affiliation has not been established.

Another option is indented fractures and through injuries (perforated fractures) in the frontal bone area, found only in the male part of the sample. So, on the frontal bone of a young man (N 243 "B"), a dent of a rounded shape (diameter no more than 2.5 cm) was noted without signs of healing. In the center of the frontal bone of another man (N 554), an oval-shaped perforated fracture with a diameter of approx. 4). Radially located cracks are visible around the defect; on the inner side of the skull, along the edge of the oval, there is a cleavage of the lower plate with a length of approx. 8 mm. No signs of necrotic process or tissue healing were found. The characteristic of the injury indicates that a sharp blow was made with a small object on the frontal bone (Kustanovich, 1975). Apparently, the wound was the cause of death. Another skull of a young man (N 388 "B", mound 50, border). 2) an oval-shaped hole with a diameter of approx. 2 cm. There were no signs of either an inflammatory process or healing. In our opinion, the described injuries can be combined not only by the location of the defect, but also by the similarity of the tools that were damaged. Both a depressed fracture and a penetrating wound have a similar characteristic. The difference is only in the force of the blow. It is possible that the described frontal bone defects are the consequences of hitting an object launched at high speed, i.e. with a remote weapon (see, for example, Buzhilova and Maslennikov 1999).

Other variants of penetrating skull wounds already in the parietal-occipital region were found in three individuals. This is a perforation formed from a blow to the parietal bone of a woman (N 524) on the left side (Fig. 5). The size of the oval-shaped defect is approximately 0.9 cm. On one side of the edge, a part of the upper plate broke off, which may indicate a significant impact force. On the parietal bone of a man-

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Figure 1. Damage to the front teeth due to trauma in a mature man (N 400).

2. Various variants of injuries in the form of incisions on the frontal bone (individuals N 594, 267, 317).

3. Damage to the skull caused by a sharp-edged weapon (individual N 508).

4. An oval-shaped hole fracture in the center of a man's frontal bone (N 554). a - view from the outside; b - view from the inside.

5. Perforation on the skull of a woman (N 524), formed from a blow to the parietal bone on the left side.

6. A 1. 5x1. 4 cm sub-square hole located in the center of the skull vault of a male (N 25) near the arrow-shaped suture.

7. Traces of a healed fracture in the distal part of the forearm bones of the left hand (individual N 198).

8. Traces of a healed injury in the lower third of the left forearm bone diaphysis (individual N 196).

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N 124, mound 18, border 9) a through hole was also found with a split off part of the upper plate along the edge of the defect. Another penetrating wound was recorded on the skull of a mature man (N 25). This is a 1. 5x1. 4 cm sub-square perforated hole located in the center of the arch next to the arrow-shaped suture (Fig. 6). None of the three skulls showed signs of an inflammatory process or bone healing.

Please note that all cases of stab wounds in both the frontal and parietal-occipital regions are characteristic only for carriers of the Krotovo culture. The latter are also distinguished from the population of other chronological stages by the greater number of skull injuries. This is shown by the example of not only obvious domestic injuries, but also injuries of a clearly military nature, in most cases received at the time of death or shortly before it.

Analysis of postcranial skeletal injuries allowed us to expand the information base and characterize some of the activities of native Krotov culture speakers.

The first group of injuries can be distinguished based on the localization of injuries only on the bones of the forearms. For example, individual N 122 (mound 18, border 7) has a curvature of the diaphysis along the horizontal axis of the bone on the upper part of the right radius, which is morphologically part of the elbow joint. Perhaps this is the result of an injury. In addition, there is a significant development of bone relief in the places of attachment of deep muscles on the right humerus, and on the tibia - signs of secondary venous congestion as a possible consequence of thrombophlebitis. The presented markers, taking into account a possible injury in the right elbow area, indicate heavy manual labor of the individual who spent a lot of time on his feet.

On the left radial bone of a man (N 290, mound 25, border). 72) found traces of a healed fracture in the lower third of the diaphysis. The postcranial skeleton of this individual is characterized by hypertrophied development of bone relief on the bones of the upper and lower extremities. On the clavicles, the consequences of regular physical overexertion - entesopathy in the places of attachment of the sternoclavicular ligament and trapezius muscle are noted. This kind of muscle development was observed in individuals who were engaged in heavy manual labor. On the left knee joint of a man, osteoarthritis is noted with a violation of the area of the articular surface of the femur and a significant development of the so-called polishing due to a violation of the integrity of the hyaline cartilage. Obviously, the individual had a limp in life.

Postcranial skeleton of a male (N 198) from the border of 52 mounds. 22 shows a healed fracture in the distal part of the right forearm bones. On the ulna, a line of violation of its integrity and minor signs of complication with signs of an inflammatory reaction are clearly visible (Fig. 7). Just as in the previous individual, a high level of development of the muscles of the upper girdle of the extremities is noted.

On the ulna and radius bones of the left hand of another man (N 196, mound 22, border 50), there are traces of a healed injury in the lower third of the diaphysis (Fig. 8). A violation of the normal bone anatomy led to the formation of osteoarthritis in the wrist joint. As in the previous cases, there is a high degree of development of bone relief in the places of attachment of muscles and ligaments on the bones of the upper limb girdle.

The detected injuries, the specific distribution of motor activity markers, and the belonging of three individuals (N 290, 198, 196) to the same stage of the Krot culture suggest that these men were engaged in similar heavy manual labor. Perhaps their occupation required special professional skills. It is possible that individual No. 122, belonging to the late stage of the Krotovo culture, was engaged in a similar business.

The second group of injuries is recorded on the fibula bones of several individuals (N 3, mound 1, border 3; N 17, mound 1, border 17; N 132, mound 19, border 7; N 230, mound 25, border 12). As a rule, defects are located almost symmetrically on the paired bones from the outside. Injuries in the form of shallow incisions or superficial lenticular sections of bone tissue are located at an angle of approximately 45° to the bone plane. The defect line runs from top to bottom. The specific nature and similarity of the injuries suggest that such injuries of the lower leg, which do not lead to fractures, could have been obtained in the same situations. Despite the fact that individuals are carriers of the same Krot culture, they belong to different chronological stages. Therefore, a similar situation that provokes typical injuries may reflect traditional activities that were practiced at all stages of the existence of this culture. Such injuries to the lower leg could be caused by falling from the top down, for example, into a pit trap with sharp wedges. Unfortunately, we do not have any additional information to describe more or less clearly the situation that led to the injury.

Other types of defects are defined by us as the consequences of a secondary inflammatory process, and it is possible that in some cases this could be the result of trauma. So, on the left tibia of individual N 142 (mound 21, border). 4) below the tibial tuberosity, there are traces of both local inflammation (primary focus?) and pinpoints at the attachment points of some muscles located in a ring below the possible primary focus of inflammation. Probably, these are the consequences of microtrauma during muscle hypothermia (myositis). In two individuals (N 490, mound 60, border 12; N 57,

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6, border 5), related to one stage of the Krotovo culture, myositis was noted in the area of attachment of the soleus muscle on the tibia.

Summing up the preliminary results of the classification of healed fractures of the skull and postcranial skeleton, we tend to believe that the vast majority of them are the result of domestic injuries. Some injuries are found in carriers of different archaeological cultures, both early and later. However, the study of injuries without signs of healing showed that chopped wounds and penetrating wounds of the skull are more common in representatives of the Krotovo population. Clearly expressed forms of aggression, which led to a fatal outcome, are characteristic mainly for the male part of this population. It is possible that military incidents took place at certain stages of the life of the Krotovo culture bearers. It is impossible not to pay attention to the aggressiveness of tender relations in this population. Many skulls of women show signs of blows to the face (healed nose fractures, jaw injuries, broken teeth).

Materials for the reconstruction of cultural traditions

The damage groups selected for discussion are typical only for the male part of the sample. The first group includes injuries found on the skulls of mature men-representatives of the early Turks. Injuries are expressed in a series of incisions (no more than 1-2 cm) on the frontal, sometimes also on the parietal bones. They are often located parallel to one another and at an angle of about 45° relative to the position of the skull in the Frankfurt horizontal. Defects were found on materials of good preservation (N 391 "A"; N 394, mound 55, border 1). It should be noted that similar incisions are observed on skulls that have undergone the scalping procedure. However, the circular nature of damage is noted only on one of the skulls under consideration (N 391 "A"), on the other they are located only in the area closer to the coronary suture. Perhaps the latter case reflects the procedure for partial removal of the skin from the hairline and specifically in the upper part of the forehead. Note that there are no signs of healing.

If we accept the hypothesis that the early Turks had a tradition of scalping, we should immediately discard the medical nature of the operation. First, we have no reason to talk about partial scalping for the purpose of surgical intervention for the treatment of skull injuries. Thus, in one case (N 394), traces of a healed cranial injury were recorded in the occipital region, but not in the frontal region, where incisions were found; in another (N 391), there was no evidence of external injuries on the skull at all. Secondly, all the incisions seen do not show signs of an inflammatory process or healing. Probably, before us are traces of post-mortem manipulation of the human head. Perhaps these are elements of ritual military traditions.

Unfortunately, we can't specify synchronous and geographically close sites where similar cases are known according to paleoanthropology. Apparently, this custom was widespread among the nomads of the Southern Russian steppes of the Bronze Age (Mednikova, 2001: 183-184). The tradition of postmortem scalping in one of the Sarmatian groups was recently described based on anthropological materials (Pererva, 2005). This rite may have been practiced by the Scythians, as there is evidence of this from written sources (Herodotus. History, IV: 64). Among the tribes of the Scythian circle in the Altai, this custom is reconstructed when analyzing the remains of the mummy of the leader from the Second Pazyryk mound. Let us recall the well-known opinion of SI. Rudenko [1953, p. 264, Table XVIII] described this find as evidence of the existence of such military customs. As we can see, there is a certain trend that allows us to talk about the existence of the scalping tradition among different nomadic peoples of Eurasia.

Another group of injuries on the skull can be classified as the consequences of trepanation. In total, five cases were recorded, one of which is very controversial. All the skulls belong to younger and more mature males.

On the parietal bone of individual No. 66 (mound 6, border 14, Neolithic), a rounded hole measuring approx. 2.2 x 2.1 cm was found on the right 3.4 cm from the sagittal suture and 3 cm from the coronal suture. There are no cracks or marks on the outer edge that indicate the consequences of a direct contact impact (Fig. 9). Note that the upper plate of the skull is damaged, first of all. Such injuries with superficial damage to the external bone plate and partially spongy substance are possible when a large blunt object is hit. You can not ignore the possibility of trepanation of the skull. If we assume that this is a trepanation, and not a trauma, then it could be performed by the so-called scraping method. Along the outer edge of the hole, no consequences characteristic of this procedure were found in the form of more or less regular violations of the integrity of the upper cranial plate. This circumstance does not allow us to definitely talk about surgical intervention. Analysis of the damage from the inside of the skull showed that the lower bone plate was not chipped along the edge of the hole, as is often the case with a depressed fracture. However, this feature is not enough to establish the fact of trepanation. Due to the strength of the parietal bone, a blunt object impact might not have created a significant hole with characteristic damage to the lower plate.

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9. Perforation on the parietal bone of a man's skull (N 66).

10. Drilling marks measuring 7.5 x 7.0 cm on a fragment of the cranial vault (N 622 "A"), a - view from the outside, b - from the inside.

11. Perforation on the skull of a young man (N 340, mound 31, border 10).

12. Variants of injuries on the male skull (N 658 "I"), a-rounded defects located in pairs on the parietal bone and together forming a straight line; b, c-enlarged paired defects; d-late injuries that violated part of the lifetime injury.

So, similar defects can occur with a depressed fracture with damage to the upper plate and partially spongy substance. With such an injury, the active inflammatory process expands the area of damage, which, as a rule, repeats the shape of the original defect. The alleged perforation, even with a small volume of the opened area, in the presence of a complicated inflammatory process, can lead to infection in the cranial cavity. Note that the absence of a characteristic "swimming" of the spongy tissue under the upper plate of the skull, as well as a fragmentary violation of the integrity of the lower plate in the form of an irregular hole and partial closure of the upper and lower plates in this area of perforation indicate an active necrotic process. There were no signs of bone damage or inflammation on the outer surface of the cranial vault around the hole. Probably, the man died quickly enough from general blood poisoning, which occurred during an active necrotic process with the penetration of infection into the cranial cavity. Assuming such an explanation of the skull injury with subsequent complication and death, one should not exclude the possibility of surgical intervention. This case requires special research involving additional methods.

The 7.5x7. 0 cm fragment of the skull vault with drilling marks,which belonged to a young man,can be regarded as evidence of undoubted manipulations with the body of the deceased (N 622 "A", Eneolithic, Igrekovskaya culture). In the area close to the bregma, at the point adjacent to the sagittal suture, a through hole was drilled on the left parietal bone. Its edges are smooth and without fractures. Drilling was carried out from the outside in the direction of the endocrine gland, as a result of which a funnel-shaped hole was formed, the diameter of which on the upper plate of the skull does not exceed 1 cm (Fig. In cross-section, the shape of the defect resembles an hourglass, therefore, it was also drilled from the inside, where a funnel-shaped hole is also observed, its diameter on the lower plate of the skull is approx. 1 cm (Fig. 10, b). When drilling from the inside, a narrow groove was formed bordering the hole, and the edges were broken.-

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lower lamina bifida on the frontal and parietal bones. No signs of inflammation or healing were found.

We tend to regard two other cases as manipulations by drilling a hole. They also relate to the chronological stage of the Ygre culture. Injuries were found on the parietal bone on the left in approximately the same area as on the cranial fragment described above. The first is a perforation on the skull of a young man from border 10 mound 31 (N 340). The diameter of the hole on the parietal bone does not exceed 1 cm. The edges are smooth, with no signs of inflammation or healing. As a result of drilling, a crack was formed and a partial fracture of the adjacent part occurred (Fig. 11). The second injury was found on the skull of a mature man (N 611 "A"). The hole diameter is 0.7 cm, i.e. it is close to the size of the defects described above. No signs of bone tissue reacting to the injury were found. Obviously, all the cases considered are the consequences of post-mortem manipulation of the deceased's head.

On the skull of another adult male (N 658 "I"), there is also a perforation on the left parietal bone at the sagittal suture and also with a diameter of no more than 1 cm. An operation performed by the same method and in the same area of the parietal bone as in other individuals combines this case with the previous ones. However, four more attempts at bone drilling were recorded on this skull, which requires special discussion. Incomplete perforations are located in the same part of the parietal bone, but below, together forming a straight line (Fig. They are located in pairs at the same distance from each other, but the drilling depth is different (Fig. 12, b, c).

We have no analogues to reconstruct the circumstances of this operation. However, we note that this skull differs from the previous ones in the presence of two extensive holes without any traces of bone reaction. The first one, which reaches 4 cm in cross-section, is located on the frontal bone. Unfortunately, the preservation of the edges is poor, we see only traces of modern injuries, especially on the left side and in the lower part of the defect, which may have been caused by cracks formed as a result of a sharp blow at the time of the individual's death (Fig. 12, d). The second, better preserved damage was noted in the occipital region on the parietal bone on the right. It has a sub-triangular shape with one short side (no more than 2 cm) and two more or less equal sides (see Fig. 12, a). Perhaps this is the result of an injury caused by a weapon with a sharp edge, the length of which did not exceed 2 cm. Upon impact, the weapon got stuck in the bone and was forcefully removed, which led to the rejection of a part of the bone with a characteristic sub-triangular shape.

Let's go back to the damage on the frontal bone. If we start from the shape and length of the upper edge of the damage (see Fig. 12, d), which also does not exceed 2 cm and forms a straight line as if from a sharp-edged weapon, then the similarity of the nature of the two holes becomes obvious. Perhaps the frontal bone was more damaged than the parietal bone, because it is less strong and the impact force was greater. On the frontal bone, as we have indicated, there are radial cracks that have led to the expansion of the primary lesion. So, the differential diagnosis allows us to state that the man died from two fatal wounds inflicted by a weapon with a sharp edge, the length of which did not exceed 2 cm. Subsequently, post-mortem manipulations were performed in the context of a certain funeral rite.

Analysis of trepanation holes indicates the existence of this operation among the carriers of the Ygrekov culture. The drilling method used indicates a masterly mastery of the skills of working with bone. All detected perforations are located on the parietal bone at the sagittal suture on the left side near the bregma. This is a rather risky place for surgical intervention, since there is a high risk of damaging the venous sinus and causing fatal bleeding. Of course, the level of empirical knowledge was high and the place of intervention was not chosen out of stupidity. Most likely, such trepanations are associated with a certain funeral rite. Let us pay attention to the persistent attachment of holes to certain areas of the cranium, which makes it possible to raise the question of the existence of a corresponding tradition among the carriers of the Ygrekov culture. We have no direct analogs for this period and territory, but based on materials from other regions of Eurasia, we emphasize that the choice of location for the trepanation hole is precisely on the left side of the skull, for example, among the carriers of the catacomb culture in the Middle Bronze Age on the territory of the steppe and forest-steppe zone of Eastern Europe. If in the anthropological materials of the pit culture, perforations in the designated area amount to no more than 3%, then during this period they were noted in at least 10 % of the buried. Most often trepanations were performed on the left side of the skull on the parietal and / or parieto-occipital bones. S. I. Kruz [1984] describes variants of multiple trepanations (several holes on one skull) based on the materials of the Krasnoe and Ispanovy Graves burial grounds.

The symbolism of trepanations in the carriers of the Ygre culture is also indicated by gender selectivity. Only men underwent such an operation. If we consider trepanation as a means of "transformation" and initiation, such selectivity is quite logical. As A. D. Avdeev noted, the origin of theatrical art turned out to be historically connected with male labor. Hunting disguise as

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the form of transformation of a person into another being and the rich imitative abilities that developed due to life's needs served as a prerequisite for the creation of a hunting dance. Hunting magic is stadially transformed into totemic rites and rituals of secret male unions, where a masked person appears in a new essence: dead, spirit, or animal [Mirovaya khudozhestvennaya kul'tura, 1994, pp. 354-377]. This line of psychobehavioral "transformation" can be traced later when identifying the category of warriors.

The existence of a powerful post-mortem skull trepanation center in Southern Siberia has been known for a long time, but it is interesting to note the variety of forms of this trepanation and the combination of in vivo operations with post-mortem procedures characteristic of the funeral rite. The epochal vector of such a combination of intravital and postmortem trepanations is directed from Northwestern Mongolia through Tuva to the Minusinsk basin. Well-known materials from the Altai territory (including from its Kazakh part) and Western Siberia suggest a stable phenomenon of skull trepanation, which is characteristic of a huge layer of nomadic pastoral cultures of the middle and late Early Iron Age (Mednikova, 2001). The ethnic and cultural ties of this population have always been the subject of discussion by anthropologists. It is quite possible that the spread of various trepanation techniques reflects contacts and migrations of steppe peoples. At the same time, sporadic finds in Central Asia, Eastern Turkestan, and Siberia make the practice of craniotomy by the local population up to the Eneolithic and Bronze Age periods more ancient (posthumous manipulations were performed in the Ygrekovsky and Okunevsky populations, and lifetime manipulations were performed in the Karasuk culture and, possibly, in Xinjiang).

According to one of the authors of this article [Ibid.], in the general assessment of the causes of trepanation, magical aspects dominate. Trepanations as a manifestation of human social activity are based on a powerful foundation of psychological prerequisites, on archetypal ideas reflected in the cult of the skull, initiation and funeral rites. The motive for intravital and postmortem trepanations could be the desire to transform the essence of a person, and this thesis is indirectly confirmed in the frequent combination of trepanation and masks that performed the same function.

Concerning the question of the origin and distribution of the phenomenon of trepanation within Eurasia, there is no reason to doubt the greatest antiquity of the Dnieper Mesolithic hearth. Later, the practice of intravital and postmortem manipulations with the body was much broader and, apparently, in some places became an ordinary phenomenon. The lack of information about the Asian part of the continent for a long time led researchers to try to explain the spread of trepanations in this region by a foreign cultural influence. However, archaeological studies in the Middle East that show complex funerary rites and manipulations with the head of the deceased, cases of intravital and postmortem trepanation in the northern provinces of China and in Southern Siberia, dating back to the Eneolithic and Bronze Age, prove the deep antiquity of the Asian tradition of deliberate perforation of skulls.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 02.02.06.

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