Libmonster ID: KZ-2901
Author(s) of the publication: N. G. FILIPPOV

Questions of socio-political life and socio-economic development of Russia during the period of capitalism have always been in the center of attention of Soviet historians. However, this issue has been studied unevenly. For a long time, researchers ignored, for example, the activities of scientific public organizations, especially scientific and technical societies (NTO), which emerged in the second half of the XIX century due to the industrial boom and the objective needs of the country's economic and cultural development. NTO was widely known and even popular in the scientific and industrial circles of capitalist Russia. The development of the most important problems of the history of Russian science, technology, and culture of this period requires a special study of all forms of social activity of the scientific and technical intelligentsia. By investigating this problem, deepening its disclosure, searching for and summarizing new factual material, we thereby expand our understanding of the nature of social and cultural life in pre-revolutionary Russia.

The first studies, but only on some societies, certain aspects of their activities, and even then from the point of view of branch science and technology, appeared in the 1950s. These included books, , and articles describing the most interesting aspects of their social work2 . A generalizing historical essay on the activities of scientific and technical societies, made by a group of authors, mainly the chairmen of the branch NTE of the USSR, was published only in 1968.3 This publication, intended for the general reader, contains fragmentary information about the emergence of some non-profit organizations, selectively covers the most important events in their activities, but the pre-revolutionary period occupies a small place. In the 70s and 80s, works appeared that revealed the network of scientific and cultural - educational societies that existed at that time, showed their public face and place in the political system of tsarist Russia .4
1 Shatel'ny M. A. Russkie elektrotechniki XIX V. M.-L. 1955; Kostomarov V. M. Iz deyatel'nosti russkogo tekhnicheskogo obshchestva v oblasti mashinostroeniya [Russian Electrical Engineers of the XIX century]. Moscow, 1957; Levit G. O. Istoriya energeticheskikh obshchestv SSSR. Moscow, L. 1957; Kozlov V. V. Ocherki istorii khimicheskikh obshchestv SSSR. Moscow, 1958.

2 Veselovsky O. N. Electrotechnical exhibitions in Russia at the end of the XIX century-Proceedings on the history of Technology, Moscow, 1953, vol. VI; Sotin B. S., Davydova L. G. Russian Electrotechnical Congresses-Proceedings of the Institute of the History of Natural Science and Technology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1956, vol. 26; Filippov N. G. Congresses, convoked Russian Technical Society in 1870-1904-Proceedings of the Moscow Historical and Archival Institute, 1965, vol. 19.

3 Scientific and technical societies of the USSR. Historical Essay, Moscow, 1968.

4 Filippov N. G. Nauchno-tekhnicheskie obshchestva Rossii (1866-1917) [Scientific and Technical Societies of Russia (1866-1917)], Moscow, 1976; Stepansky A.D. Istoriya obshchestvennykh organizatsii dorevolyutsionnoi Rossii, Moscow, 1979; Soboleva E. V. Organizatsiya nauki v poreformennoi Rossii, Moscow, 1983.

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This article attempts to give a general description of non-profit organizations for the period from 1866 to 1916, to highlight the main directions of their activities, to show their role in solving scientific, technical, cultural and educational issues, and to participate in the public life of the country.

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the rapid development of industry, energy, mining, railway and water transport, the emergence of new industrial areas, the technical revolution in the economy, the growth of the industrial bourgeoisie and the scientific and technical intelligentsia. This was the period of formation of a number of new industries, major achievements in natural science and technology, when Russian scientists and engineers made important scientific discoveries and inventions (D. I. Mendeleev, A. F. Mozhaisky, A. S. Popov, D. K. Chernov, P. N. Yablochkov, etc.) 5 . At that time, Russia developed relatively more favorable conditions for the emergence of scientific societies aimed at promoting the development of industry and technology, vocational education, organizing and conducting scientific and technical research in industry, promoting scientific ideas and spreading technical knowledge among the broad masses of the population. A number of scientific and technical societies appeared: the Russian Technical Society ( RTO) - 1866, the Russian Physical and Chemical Society (RFHO) - 1878, the Society for Promoting the Improvement and Development of the Manufacturing Industry-1889, the Society of Marine Engineers-1896, etc.6 . A separate group consisted of scientific and technical societies that emerged at higher technical educational institutions (the Society of Technologists, the Society of Mining Engineers, the Society of Civil Engineers, etc.), which had certain features, since they were subordinate to the administration of their institute, and its members were mainly its graduates and teachers.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the social activity of the scientific and technical intelligentsia is increasing, the sphere of professional activity and geographical distribution of scientific and technical information is expanding, and new specialized public organizations are emerging, caused by the process of differentiation of scientific knowledge and the development of technology. Congresses of scientists and engineers convened on the initiative of the technical community have become more frequent and more representative. In 1909, societies of electrical engineers were formed in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kiev; in 1910, the Russian Metallurgical Society in St. Petersburg; the Aeronautical Society in Moscow; in 1911, the Russian Society for Testing Materials; in 1917, the Telegraph and Telephone Technical Society, and others.

At the same time, large territorial associations of engineering and technical workers appeared: the Circle of Technologists of the Moscow district (1909), which united specialists not only in Moscow, but also in several adjacent provinces (1,254 people) and had branches in Tula, Tver, Vladimir, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Bezhitsa; the Society of Siberian Engineers in Tomsk (1909), the Society of Engineers of the Baku District (1916) 7. It should be noted that there was no single governing body, clear differentiation in the subjects of NTO classes, and several societies often dealt with the same issues. Thus, the Moscow Polytechnic Institute was engaged in textile industry issues.

5 P. N. Yablochkov. Proceedings. Documents. Materials. M. 1954; Alexander F. Mozhaisky-the creator of the first airplane. Sb. dokl. M. 1955; The invention of radio. A. S. Popov. Documents and materials, Moscow, 1966; Golovin A. F. O zhizni i deyatel'nosti D. K. Chernov (1839-1921), Moscow, 1968; Smirnov G. Mendeleev, Moscow, 1974; et al.

6 Science in Russia. Reference yearbook. Issue 1. Pg. 1920; Issue 2. Moscow, 1922.

7 TsGIA of Moscow, f. 2262, op. 1, 41, l. 163; Bulletin of the Circle of Technologists of the Moscow district, Moscow, 1910-1911, NN 1-10; Journal of the Society of Siberian Engineers, Tomsk, 1909, N 1; On the issue of the tasks of the Society of Engineers of the Baku district. Baku. 1916.

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society, Circle of technologists of the Moscow region, Society for Promoting the improvement and Development of the manufacturing industry, RTO, RFHO; metallurgical - Russian Metallurgical Society, RTO, RFHO, Society of Technologists, etc.

The financial base of NTS was small and unstable, most of them were not subsidized by either the government or industry, and only a few (in total, about 47 NTS were identified)8 enjoyed regular financial support from private capital: Russian Metallurgical Society, Russian Society for Testing Materials, Society for Promoting the Improvement and Development of the Manufacturing Industry 9 . In a special position was the RTO, the most numerous (over 1 thousand people), the most popular, combining ITR of various specialties, which had peripheral branches in 40 provincial and industrial centers of the country. The RTO enjoyed government subsidies, had constant connections with the highest official bureaucracy, and was most often approached for technical assistance and advice by state institutions , 10 city governments, manufacturers and breeders. The opinion of this society was authoritative. Many NGOs, recognizing its central importance, applied to government authorities through the RTO or counted on its support in their applications. Research literature on the history of science and scientific and technical intelligentsia notes that RTO was "one of the leading centers for the development of technology and technical science", which had a noticeable impact on the progress of industry .11 The Academy of Sciences, taking into account the importance and seriousness of the RTO's scientific work, requested in 1910: RTO Council send all reports of the company since its formation 12 .

With their diverse activities, NTO attracted the attention of all those who were interested in the development of technology and industry. The overwhelming majority of the Russian technical intelligentsia took a greater or lesser part in the work of NTO, the full members of these societies were well-known Russian scientists (A.V. Gadolin, N. E. Zhukovsky, A. N. Krylov, D. I. Mendeleev, N. P. Petrov, A. S. Popov, D. K, Chernov, etc.), scientific works which are included in the treasury of world science. Among the members of the NTO were representatives of large industrial capital (N. S. Avdakov, L. E. Nobel, D. P. Shipov, S. I. Maltsev, Br. V. P. and P. P. Ryabushinsky, etc.), the highest administration (officials of the ministries of finance, railways, state property, military and naval, public education), the largest factories (Bryansk, Kolomna, Putilovsky, Sormovsky, etc.) 13 .

In terms of their social and political composition, the non-profit organizations were heterogeneous, including representatives of different strata of the population (the nobility, large and small bourgeoisie, middle-class citizens, even workers) and various political trends (Octobrists, cadets, Social revolutionaries, social democrats-

8 Filippov N. G. Nauchno-tekhnicheskie obshchestva Rossii [Scientific and Technical Societies of Russia], pp. 205-213.

9 Zukernik A. L. Syndicate "Prodamet". Historical and Economic Essay, Moscow, 1959, p. 28 (Prodamet subsidized the publication of the journal of the Russian Metallurgical Society); Bastrakova M. S. Organizational trends of Russian Science at the beginning of the XX century. In: Organization of Scientific Activity, Moscow, 1968, p. 160.

10 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 379, l. 36; d. 384, ll. 22-40; d. 400, l. 2; d. 408, l. 10; f. 1284, op. 188, d. 187, ll. 76-82.

11 Essays on the History of Leningrad, Moscow, 1957, p. 624; Razvitie estestvoznaniya v Rossii (XVIII-nachalo XX V.), Moscow, 1979, p. 253; Essays on the history of the organization of Science in Leningrad. 1703-1977. L. 1980, p. 107; Soboleva E. V. Uk. soch., p. 143-151.

12 imp notes. Russian Technical Society (Notes of RTO), St. Petersburg, 1913, issue 1, p. 2.

13 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 34, ll. 119-121; d. 42, ll. 1-46; d. 148, ll. 4-16; Bulletin of the Society of Technologists, St. Petersburg, 1913, N 3.

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The difference in class interests inevitably manifested itself in the discussion of socio-economic issues. The majority of NTO members were supporters of legal progress without political struggle, sought only to improve the conditions of academic work within the existing system, and opposed any participation in socio - political events. Some were democratically minded, opposed to tsarism, were progressive, took part in the social movement during the bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907, some even on the side of the proletariat, demanded democratic freedoms, supported serious transformations in Russia, and opposed the arbitrariness that reigned in the country, but they did it with caution, with the help of the proletariat. V. I. Lenin pointed out that it was necessary "to clearly understand both the inevitability of liberal protests against the autocracy and the actual bourgeois nature of these protests." 14 A number of members of the societies were associated with the revolutionary-democratic movement and actively helped it (A. G. Nebolsin, D. L. Ivanov, A.M. Terpigorev, etc.), among them were members of the RSDLP (L. B. Krasin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, R. E. Klasson, P. A. Kozmin, P. V. Tochissky, etc.). Leading positions in the societies were occupied by well-known scientists and professors of higher education, who determined the direction and nature of the social activities of non-profit organizations. The presence in the societies of the largest scientific and engineering forces, representatives of industrial production, contributed to the consideration of issues that were dictated by the urgent needs of the country's economic life, and not by abstract scientific, theoretical reasoning.

The tsarist government, which often resorted to the help of non-governmental organizations in solving complex industrial and economic issues, was reserved and wary of all public activities, tried by various administrative measures to limit the activity of scientific public organizations to purely technical activities, not allowing socio-economic and socio-political issues to be discussed, because, as V. I. Lenin noted, "the autocracy cannot but delay social development" 15 . RTO with its numerous branches, which had more rights than other non-governmental organizations, sought to get out of the administration's care and play a more active role in public life, which caused dissatisfaction with the authorities .16
The Moscow branch of the RTO was particularly active, holding public meetings, questionnaires on reducing working hours in factories and factories, research on the housing conditions of the working population of Moscow, on labor safety, and making inquiries in the State Duma about the reasons for not allowing the opening of educational institutions for workers .17 The reports of the Moscow security department and the Moscow mayor to the Ministry of Internal Affairs repeatedly reported "on the harmful illegal direction of the activities of the Moscow branch of the RTO", "on the need to establish strict supervision of its activities", and even suggested that it should be closed .18 The Moscow mayor reported to the Department of General Affairs that " non-compliance with the legal order when calling public meetings by the Moscow branch of the imp. The Russian Technical Society is not allowed for any legitimate reasons, although

14 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 9, p. 131.

15 Ibid., p. 130.

16 TsGIA USSR, f. 1284, op. 188, d. 187, ll. 15 ob., 25-28.

17 Ibid., f. 90, op. 1, d. 74, ll. 110-111 vol., d. 167, ll. 208-268; f. 1284, op. 188, d. 217, ll. 1-3; d. 9, ll. 25-34.

18 Ibid., f. 741, op. 1, d. 147, ll. 136-137; f. 1284, op. 188, d. 90, ll. 1-4; d. 172, ll. 200-202.

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However, there may be some erroneous considerations, namely, the unwillingness to submit to the legal supervision of administrative authorities"19 . According to the mayor, the actions of the Moscow branch of the RTO "sometimes took on a clearly threatening state order", since it, going beyond the legal program, " extended and continues to extend its activities to the discussion and development of issues of a national and public nature that have nothing or very little to do with technology and the technical industry in Russia, and in particular it is impossible not to see in these numerous and frequently repeated deviations from the goals of society a certain system of persistent and consistent interpretation of the subjects accepted for discussion in the spirit of those social circles that are opposed to the government."20
After the revolution of 1905 - 1907, the authorities ' suspicion of NGOs, which actively participated in the general democratic movement during the revolutionary events, increased especially. Cases of conflicts between non-profit organizations and administrative bodies regarding" non-statutory actions " of companies have become more frequent. Thus, meetings of the Moscow Branch of the RTO devoted to discussing reports "On workers 'Education", "Draft Laws on Workers' Insurance in the State Duma", and "50th Anniversary of the Zemstvo" were banned or interrupted as they did not correspond to the RTO profile 21.

The oppression of the autocracy, the petty guardianship of the police department aroused protests of the progressive public. Most of all, the administration was concerned about the public meetings of the NTO, where they discussed acute social issues (the workers ' question, the position of ITR in industry, education, etc.), the possibility of penetration into public organizations of revolutionary social democrats and their use of these organizations in order to fight the autocracy. Despite the administration's ban, there were many outsiders (including workers and students) at the NTO meetings, often making up the bulk of those present. They actively interfered in the course of the debate, expressing their attitude to the speeches of members of the society. The authorities closely monitored all meetings of the NTO, their congresses, and changes in the composition of governing bodies. NGOs were in the thick of things, but the main obstacle to the deployment of their socio - political activities was the police and bureaucratic regime.

Since the end of the 60s of the XIX century. NTO actively contributed to the solution of many pressing technical issues related to the development of major industries. On the initiative and with the active participation of non-governmental organizations that advocated the country's industrial development based on a more complete and rational use of natural resources, significant work was carried out to identify mineral deposits, as well as to study various types of domestic industrial raw materials. RTO, the Society of Mining Engineers, and the Mineralogical Society have repeatedly stated that it is advisable to conduct a systematic geological study of the country's territory at the expense of the treasury in order to search for new mineral deposits in the Urals, Kapy Az, and Siberia, which was of great importance for establishing the economic potential of industry and the correct location of enterprises.

At the meetings of the NTO, issues of providing industrial loans, government orders to domestic entrepreneurs, and prospects for the development of the iron ore and coal base in new territories were discussed.

19 Ibid., l. 6.

20 Ibid., l. 10.

21 Ibid., ll. 1-8; d. 187, ll. 70-79, Rech, 24. II. 1914.

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Russian regions, on the revision of outdated mining legislation, on the need to issue a law on the separation of the right of ownership of the earth's mineral resources from the right of ownership of land 22, on the restriction of the rights of foreigners in Russian industry 23 . Non-profit organizations did not object to attracting foreign capital, especially in cases where Russian capitalists were unable to set up new production facilities due to lack of funds, but at the same time they noted the danger of increasing the influence of foreign monopolies in the country's economy and were in favor of restricting their activities.

For a long time, the NTO debated the issues of industrial development in the South of Russia, the Urals, the question of replacing English coal with domestic coal, and the use of mineral fuel in industry and transport .24 In an effort to promote the development of Donbass, the NTO supported the demands of the southern miners to restrict the import of coal by setting a high customs tariff. Capitalists in the Northwest, who were interested in imported coal, accused the NTO of being biased towards the interests of certain groups of industrialists. Rejecting these baseless accusations and explaining its position, the Society of Mining Engineers stated that it "generally does not protect the industrial interests of any districts or individual enterprises, but rather covers emerging issues from the point of view of state benefit, taking into account the interests of consumers, i.e. industry."25
The development of the Ural mining industry and the southern coal and metallurgical base was closely linked to railway construction, as railways provided access to industrial products on the market and were a major consumer of them. As B. I. Lenin noted, "Yellow roads are the results of the most important branches of capitalist industry, coal and iron, the results-and the most obvious indicators of the development of world trade and bourgeois-democratic civilization." 26 Understanding the important economic importance of the development of the railway network, the technical community demanded a reduction in the formalities for authorizing the construction of industrial railways (especially access roads, with the alienation of private land for their construction if necessary), so that all railway accessories were manufactured in Russian factories and from Russian materials, and the establishment of a single tariff for the transportation of industrial goods . Scientific forces of public organizations took an active part in solving various issues of railway construction and operation (on the most profitable train movement on single-track railways, on choosing the direction of the Siberian Railway route, electrification of railway transport, etc.), in discussing and examining projects of rolling stock, track inspection devices, electro-automatic signaling, braking devices, etc.28 .

22 TsGIA USSR, f. 37, op. 5, d. 2078, ll. 56-57; f. 515, op. 26, d. 1371, ll. 2-5 vol.; Notes of the RTO, 1879, issue 2, pp. 62-66.

23 Gorny Zhurnal, St. Petersburg, 1889, vol. I, No. 2, pp. 217-348; Izvestiya Obshchestva gornykh inzhenerov, 1900, No. 5, pp. 1-36.

24 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 524, ll. 44-49; Izvestiya Obshchestva gornykh inzhenerov, 1894, N 2-3, p. 1-49; 1897, N 3, p. 1-17; 1903, N 11, p. 39-62; 1909, N 6, p. 1-27, N 7, p. 1-11; 1911, N 1, p. 16-25.

25 Ibid., 1910, No. 8, p. 3.

26 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 27, p. 304.

27 TsGIA of the USSR, f. 90, op. 1, dd. 498, 501, 507; Railway business, St. Petersburg, 1891, N 41, pp. 419-427; N 28, pp. 363-381.

28 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 502, ll. 23-26; d. 503, ll. 25-28, 310-313; d. 519, ll. 41-43, 64-68; d. 524, ll. 76-79; Proceedings of the imp Commission. Russian Technical Society on the question of the railway through the whole of Siberia, St. Petersburg, 1889.

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Advocating for the development of the Donbass and foreseeing its great future, non-governmental organizations noted the importance of studying coal deposits in other regions of the country29 more efficient use of all types of local fuels (peat, brown coal, oil shale) for industrial purposes. For this purpose, experimental studies were conducted in search of rational forms of use and improving the quality of its low-calorie varieties. 30 .

Non-profit organizations also took the initiative in addressing issues related to improving working conditions in the mining industry, the situation of workers, preventing accidents, and preparing special legislation on workers ' insurance .31 Due to predatory exploitation of deposits, non-compliance of mine owners with basic safety regulations, and poor technical equipment, mining operations were associated with a large number of injuries and accidents. According to the statistics bureau of the Council of Congresses of Mining Workers of the South of Russia, 364 people were injured annually per 1 thousand workers, including 28.2% with severe injuries, 2.3% of those killed .32 Representatives of the technical community (B. I. Bokiy, L. I. Lutugin, etc.), who participated in the investigation of the major disaster at the Rykovskaya mine near Yuzovka in 1908, where 274 people died, stated blatant violations of underground work safety 33. Their speeches turned into an accusation of the order that then existed in the mining industry of Donbass, were quoted in the Bolshevik newspaper Zvezda in an article about the disenfranchised position of miners under capitalism.

The majority of non-profit organizations focused on issues related to creating conditions for the development of domestic mechanical engineering - establishing industrial credit, providing raw materials, and protecting qualified personnel from foreign competition. In the specialized literature, there is information about the participation of RTOS in the introduction of a protectionist tariff on imported machinery, in shaping public opinion regarding the need to develop new branches of mechanical engineering, and in determining the prospects for further economic development of the country34. RTO applied to the Ministry of Finance with memos "On the need to maintain machine-building in Russia "(1867), "On strengthening the Fleet by means of domestic industry" (1905), "On the question of the basic needs of Russian industry" (1915), etc., which justified the expediency and timeliness of protectionist policies in Russia. 35. with regard to certain industries in order to protect national industry, restrict imports and depend on foreign capital .

The NTO's proposals on the choice and introduction of new technology, the introduction of a metric system of weights and measures in Russia, and the revision of industrial legislation and legislation on privileges for inventions, which, with their numerous restrictions and conventions, hindered the development of industry and creative activity, were of great importance.

29 Izvestiya Obshchestva gornykh inzhenerov, 1909, No. 3, pp. 1-12.

30 Ibid., 1902, No. 9, pp. 1-38; No. 3, pp. 1-19; Bulletin of the Society of Technologists, 1894, No. 1, pp. 10-14; Bulletin of the Circle of Technologists of the Moscow district, 1913, No. 7, pp. 46-72.

31 Gorny zhurnal, 1906, No. 6, pp. 217-263; Izvestiya Obshchestva gornykh inzhenerov, 1893, No. 4, pp. 35-55.

32 Bulletin of the Society of Technologists, 1908, N 10, p. 391.

33 TsGIA SSSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 398, ll. 59-106; Notes of the RTO, 1909, issue 4, 6-7.

34 Kostomarov V. M. Uk. soch., pp. 20-28.

35 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 171, ll. 65-71; f. 23, op. 1, d. 4, ll. 45-50; Notes of the RTO, 1915, issues 8-9, adj., pp. 1-4.

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thoughts 36 . According to data from 1907-1908, an average of 52% of applications were rejected, only 10% were implemented, and 25% of patents issued in Russia were owned by Russian citizens .37 Noting the unsatisfactory state of invention, the RTO requested the creation of a special independent institution for the examination of inventions, the reduction of fees for obtaining privileges, the extension of their validity period and the restriction of the rights of foreigners .38
Execution of a number of regulatory works (development of technical specifications for the production of petroleum products - kerosene, gasoline, lighting and lubricating oils, for the production and testing of internal combustion engines, metal cutting machines, rules for the design and maintenance of steam boilers, etc.), opening of special testing stations for the examination of industrial products and raw materials, factory laboratories, demonstration museums of scientific and technical works contributed to the production of higher-quality industrial products and proper operation of equipment 39 .

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the technical community at its meetings and in the press began to pay more attention to the issues of scientific organization of labor in industrial production, the possibility of using the American Taylor system in Russian factories, because, as public figures stated, "no country worked so irrationally, expensively, wastefully and unproductively as Russia." 40 It was even suggested that with the rapid reorganization of the machine-building plants ' economy, one can count on their rapid specialization, which will lead to an increase in labor productivity, a reduction in the cost of production, an improvement in the quality of products, and, consequently, competitiveness.

Scientific and technical societies that organized scientific research in the field of electrical engineering and aeronautics, supported the experimental and research work of Russian scientists, engineers, and inventors, had a great influence on the formation and further development of these new branches of technology. As M. A. Shatelny, who was the chairman of the VI (electrotechnical) Department of RTO from 1906 to 1915, testifies in his memoirs, NTO made a serious contribution to solving a number of problems related to the use of electricity (electric lighting, welding, communication, energy transmission over a distance, etc.). introduction of electrical engineering achievements in the industry through the organization of electrical exhibitions "publication of the special magazine "Electricity", development of regulatory materials that ensure the correct and safe construction and operation of electrical structures and various installations 42 .

Advocating the widespread introduction of electric energy in industry, agriculture, everyday life, engineering and technical sphere-

36 TsGIA USSR, f. 20, op. 15, d. 791, ll. 3-21; f. 90, op. 1, d. 302, ll. 1-33; Salov N. N. Theory of privileges and a detailed report on the movement of this issue in the RTO. SPb. 1882; Belov V. D. Review of works on revision of the legislation on privileges, St. Petersburg, 1895; Pluzhnik A. I., Filippov N. G. Regulations on privileges of 1896-Questions of Invention, 1971, No. 9, pp. 21-24.

37 Bulletin of the Society of Technologists, 1907, No. 12, pp. 507-509; 1908, No. 5, pp. 161-180.

38 Zapiski RTO, 1905, issue 1, pp. 51-98.

39 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 387, ll. 210-215, 226; Bulletin of the Society of Technologists, 1913, n 7, p. 217-221; Essay on the 40th anniversary of the Polytechnic Society. 1877-1917. Moscow, 1918, pp. 47-56.

40 Electricity, 1917, N 1, p. 8.

41 Shatel'ny M. A. Russkie elektrotechniki vtoroi poloviny XIX veka [Russian Electrical Engineers of the second half of the XIX century]. Moscow, 1949, pp. 313-366.

42 TsGIA of the USSR, f. 115, op. 1, 25, ll. 1 - 4, 48 - 55, 58 - 99.

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The Government's attention was drawn to the need to establish the production of electrical equipment in the country, to develop and support the electrical industry, which was in the grip of Western European capital .43 Advanced Russian technical thought even then foresaw enormous prospects for the use of electricity. Engineer V. F. Dobrotvorsky spoke at the First All-Russian Electrotechnical Congress: "Without the development of the electric industry, technical progress is unthinkable. The country that first makes the use of electricity widespread will undoubtedly be at the head of the industrial movement."44 Technical societies paid serious attention to the introduction of electric energy on railways. Even such far-reaching goals as the introduction of electric traction on the Nikolaev, Transcaucasian railways, and the Siberian Railway 45 were touched upon . Projects and models of the I. V. Romanov electric suspended railway, proposals for the construction of the metro in St. Petersburg and Moscow were discussed .46 But all the railway electrification projects did not leave the discussion stage, because neither the government nor the city administrations in Russia had the means to implement them.

In the course of performing various works at the request of government agencies, city administrations, and industrial enterprises, electrotechnical societies concentrated a significant amount of diverse information on the search for natural energy resources, design, construction, and operation of power plants, electrification of factories, factories, railways, and utilities. After the October Revolution, the factual material collected by technical societies on the study of water resources and local cheap energy sources, on the state of factory electrification, statistics on the operation of power plants for a number of years, unrealized hydroelectric power projects, etc. were used in the development of the GOELRO plan, which was attended by active members of the VI RTO Department and All-Russian Electrotechnical Congresses - G. O. Graftio, K. A. Krug, P. S. Osadchiy, M. A. Shatel'ny et al. 47 .

NTO has shown itself in developing scientific and practical issues of aeronautics, atmospheric research, providing timely information on the latest achievements in aeronautics and its application for military purposes, and in popularizing meteorology as a science. By arranging balloon ascents, the RTO conducted geophysical, meteorological, astronomical, physical and even physiological observations, studied atmospheric currents at different altitudes, took aerial photographs, flew long distances in a certain direction ,and worked to improve balloon management. 48 The Expert Commission of the World's Fair in Paris in 1900 awarded the VII Division of the RTO the highest award "Grand Prix"for the totality of works on aeronautics 49 . But the main focus is

43 See: Dyakin V. S. Germanskie kapitali v Rossii (Elektroindustriia i elektricheskii transport) [German Capitals in Russia (Electric industry and electric transport)]. l. 1971.

44 Proceedings of the 1st All-Russian Electrotechnical Congress, vol. 3, St. Petersburg, 1901, p. 272.

45 TsGIA OF THE USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 468, ll. 89-137; f. 115, op. 1, d. 28, ll. 15-40.

46 Ibid., f. 90, on. 1, d. 463, ll. 47-48, 62; d. 525, l. 74 vol.; Notes of the RTO, 1916, issue 5, p. 35-42; Railway business, 1915, N 41-42, p. 423-434.

47 Trudy GOELRO Materials on electrification of separate districts, Moscow, 1964, p. 29; Davydova L. G. Ispol'zovanie elektricheskoi energii v promyshlennosti Rossii (Istoricheskii ocherk, Moscow, 1966, p. 172; Ocherki istorii tekhniki Rossii, 1861-1917, vol. 1, Moscow, 1973, p. 200).

48 TsGIA USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 319, l. 4; d. 487, ll. 34-36; d. 488, ll. 109-110; TsGIA USSR, f. 808, on, 1, d. 16, l. 50; d. 18, l. 150.

49 Ibid., f. 802, op. 3, d. 991, ll. 49-58.

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RTO was aimed at solving theoretical and practical issues of the flight of heavier-than-air vehicles. For this purpose, designs and models of aircraft (A. F. Mozhaisky, P. D. Kuzminsky, M. M. Pomortsev, I. I. Sikorsky, D. K. Chernov, etc.), engines for aircraft (S. S. Kostovich, F. G. Kalep, A. G. Ufimtsev, etc.) were considered 50. The first works of N. E. Zhukovsky on aerodynamics, which are the source of the main ideas on which modern aviation science is based, were reported and discussed at meetings of scientific societies with demonstrations of various experiments and models.

NTO specialists were widely used by the local administration in solving issues of urban improvement and development of public utilities. NTO meetings considered water supply and sewerage projects, construction of major urban structures (bridges, central power plants, tram start-up, etc.), clarified the causes of construction disasters, approved programs of various exhibitions and competitions. 51
The public drew the government's attention to the economic state of the textile industry, which was considered the most prosperous at that time, to the need to develop its own raw material base, textile engineering in order to reduce imports, since the import of raw materials in 1913 amounted to 46% for cotton, 75-80% for wool, 80% for silk, and the majority of the spinning and weaving factories were equipped with machines of the English company Knopa 52 . There was even a saying: "Where there is a church, there is a priest, and where there is a factory, there is a church." The NTO discussed industrial, technical and socio-economic issues related to the textile industry: the latest theories of dyeing fabrics, the study of mechanical, physico-chemical properties of fibrous materials, the situation of workers, the participation of women in engineering professions, the fight against falsification of manufactured goods, etc. 53 In connection with the development of aeronautics and the need to manufacture gas-tight shells for airships and balloons, the question of establishing the production of special technical fabrics and conducting their tests, which was considered in the Russian Technical Society in 191254, was of great practical importance both in technical and economic terms .

At the meetings of the NTO, which were the most important source of operational information for engineering and technical workers about the latest achievements in science and technology, the largest scientific discoveries and inventions made by Russian scientists and engineers were discussed. Thus, in 1869, D. I. Mendeleev made the first report on the periodic law of chemical elements discovered by him at the Russian Chemical Society .55 D. K. Chernov reported all his scientific works on metallurgy to RTO 56 , and in 1894 engineer V. A. Tyurin presented the design of the "reading apparatus"at the RTO57. On May 7, 1895, at a meeting of the Physical department of the RFHO, A. S. Popov demonstrated a device for receiving electromagnetic vibrations (this day is yav-

50 Aeronautics and Atmospheric Research, St. Petersburg, 1905, issue 9, pp. 20-29; Izvestiya AN SSSR, Department of Technical Sciences, 1951, pp. 1357-1389.

51 TsGIA SSSR, f. 23, op. 1, d. 134, ll. 35-42; LGIA, f. 184, op. 3, d. 4486, ll. 1-1 vol.; Lunin B. V. Scientific societies of Turkestan and their progressive activity. Tashkent, 1962, pp. 103-125.

52 Vestnik Obshchestva tekhnologov, 1895, N 6, p. 105; Zapiski RTO, 1913, no. 8-9, p. 193-204.

53 Ibid., 1902, no. 7-8, pp. 481-548; Izvestiya Obshchestva dlya razvitiya i sovershenstvovaniya manufakturnoi promyshlennosti, 1909, no. 3, pp. 1-17.

54 Zapiski RTO, 1912, issue 5, pp. 176-178.

55 History of Leningrad University. Essays, L. 1969, p. 104.

56 Fedorov A. S. Tvortsy nauki o metale [Creators of Metal Science], Moscow, 1980, pp. 62-84.

57 Nauchnoe obozrenie, SPb., 1894, N 24, pp. 737-749.

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the date of the invention of radio), and in November of the same year A. N. Krylov in the RTO makes a report "On the pitching of a ship in a wave" 58 . In 1907, the physicist B. L. Rosing made a scientific report on the scheme he invented for reproducing images using a cathode-ray tube .59
Scientific and technical societies occupy a special place in the development of domestic science, because their research activities compared to academic science, which "in the XIX century did not have a decisive influence on the development of technical sciences", were closer to the needs of production, were more diverse, and more scientists, engineers, and specialists participated in it. It is no accident that " this form of organization of science became widespread in the second half of the century. XIX century"60 . Scientific and technical works performed within the framework of NTO are striking in their variety of subjects. Among the major scientific works carried out at the RTO were D. I. Mendeleev's "Study of the elasticity of gases", N. P. Petrov's "Hydrodynamic theory of friction during lubrication", D. P. Konovalov's "Industrial Wastewater Treatment", A. N. Gorchakov's" Protection of Wood from rotting", and others.

Many NTO studies were dictated by practical requirements. In 1881, by order of the Ministry of Railways, the RTO conducted a study of rail steel in order to improve the quality and develop technical conditions for accepting steel rails from factories. In 1915, in connection with the use of toxic substances by the Germans at the front, N. D. Zelinsky, N. A. Shilov, B. V. Khlopin in the RFHO, and F. K. Gehrke in the Moscow Polytechnic Society were searching for means of neutralizing toxic gases, Scientists proposed a method of using activated carbon to protect against toxic gases, which formed the basis of a universal gas mask.

A distinctive feature of the activities of non-profit organizations was that they combined the solution of practical issues with tasks of a scientific and theoretical nature. The societies themselves saw their main task in meeting the needs of industry and determining the directions of the state's technical policy. The Society of Mining Engineers, for example, has stated that it should strive to ensure that no issue related to mining activities is considered in any of the many government commissions and meetings without the participation of its representative .61
In connection with the increased social significance of NTO in the XX century. Demands for the participation of representatives of the technical community in public administration have become increasingly insistent. The position of the RTO is very significant in this regard, which in 1909, at the suggestion of the Academician of Architecture P. Yu. Syuzor, applied to the government with a request to select representatives of technology to the State Council on behalf of higher technical educational institutions and scientific and technical societies, since " there are not many people with technical education in the State Council and for the polysyllabic and competent it is not enough to discuss the needs of industry " 62 .

A well-known positive role in activating the creative activity of engineers was played by the organization of NTO competitions, the establishment of names-

58 TsGIA OF the USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 461, ll. 26-32; d. 466, ll. 66-69; TSGAVMF of the USSR, f. 421, op. 1, d. 523, ll. 156-157; Invention of radio. A. S. Popov, p. 46; Krylov A. N. My Memoirs, L. 1984, p. 467.

59 Electricity, St. Petersburg, 1910, N 20, pp. 535-544.

60 Istoriya Akademii nauk SSSR. T. P. M.-L. 1964, p.391; Ocherki istorii organizatsii nauki v Leningradu [History of the USSR Academy of Sciences]. 1703-1977, p. 86.

61 Izvestiya Obshchestva gornykh inzhenerov, 1909, N 4, p. 12.

62 TsGIA SSSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 337, ll. 78-79 vol.; Notes of the RTO, 1909, issue 5.

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awards (A. P. Borodin, I. A. Vyshnegradsky, D. I. Mendeleev, A. S. Popov, etc.) and medals awarded for inventions and scientific research in the field of technology. The RTO medal was awarded to D. K. Chernov for achievements in metallurgy, N. N. Benardos and N. G. Slavyanov - for the invention of electric welding, I. I. Sikorsky - for the best aircraft design; the RFHO awards were awarded to well-known chemical scientists D. P. Konovalov, N. A. Menshutkin, A.V. Favorsky and others. 63 Consideration and recognition of the high value of a particular work by such authoritative scientific societies as RTO or RFHO was a great incentive for making important creative decisions.

Russian non-profit organizations were connected with foreign scientific societies and associations, took part in international congresses and exhibitions, where they made scientific presentations and demonstrated their achievements. The forms of scientific relations with foreign societies were mainly reduced to mutual attendance at scientific meetings, participation in congresses, congresses, the creation of branches of international public organizations in Russia, and mutual election to honorary members of scientific societies. Honorary members of the RTO were T. Edison, A. Eiffel, F. Lesseps, E. Achesson, and others. 64 In turn, Russian professors N. A. Belelyubsky, A. N. Krylov, D. I. Mendeleev, V. E. Timonov, D. K. Chernov, and others. they were members of English, German, French and American societies 65 .

One of the most important areas of work of the NTO was the organization of consulting assistance to industrial enterprises, city and zemstvo boards in various branches of technology and production. Of great practical importance, given the general lack of qualified personnel to meet the needs and demands of local industry, were the various reference and consulting bureaus that existed at the NTO, staffed by experienced specialists, who took on all sorts of expert assignments, issued technical, economic, commercial and even legal certificates on industrial production issues, recommended firms or individual specialists who can take over the drafting of the project, estimates, technical specifications, as well as monitoring the progress of various construction works. The participation of scientists (D. I. Mendeleev, M. A. Pavlov, D. K. Chernov, etc.) in industrial production in the form of scientific consultations, recommendations on the rational distribution of forces and resources gave a certain effect. Russian specialists, overcoming the obstacles caused by foreigners, as well as the routine and inertia of domestic breeders and manufacturers, made a significant contribution to the introduction of the latest achievements of science and technology in industry.

In the scientific life of Russia, congresses of scientists and public figures were of great importance, where fundamental scientific and practical issues were brought up for discussion. In total, 64 congresses were convened by technical societies (industrial, construction, hydraulic engineering, mining, geology, chemistry, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, and vocational education), which were of national significance and played a major role in the development of the main industries and transport, in the formation and establishment of new production, and in setting up vocational education in Russia. country. In order to give the congresses a character, I am continuously working-

63 TsGIA SSSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 14, l. 22; d. 339, l. 72; Zapiski RTO, 1898, issue 4, p. 65; Kozlov V. V. Uk. soch., p. 483-495.

64 TsGIA OF the USSR, f. 90, op. 1, d. 34, ll. 119-121.

65 Ibid., f. 186. op. 1, d. 2, ll. 4-9; f. 1078, op. 1, d. 37; Chekanov A. A., Rzhonsnitsky B. N. Mikhail Andreevich Shatel. 1866-1957. Moscow, 1972, p. 33.

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standing committees were established for each central public body. The long-term active work of the standing Committees of All-Russian Electrotechnical congresses and the permanent Bureau of Russian Water supply Congresses is well known .66
By calling congresses, the NTO drew the attention of the general public to solving urgent problems of national significance (development of metallurgy in the South of Russia and the Urals in the Donbass, oil transportation and processing, construction of industrial railways, electrification of industry and transport, water supply and sewerage in cities, etc.). Although the decisions of the congresses were not binding, they made a serious impression by the thoroughness of the discussion and the reasonableness of their proposals, in the development of which the most competent and authoritative specialists took part, the main task of the society's congresses was to influence the authorities. The demands of Russian capitalists, who longed for a patronizing tariff, various kinds of privileges, and government orders, were sympathetically perceived by non-profit organizations, who saw this as the key to the success of domestic industry. The scientific and technical intelligentsia, through their representative congresses, sought to shape public opinion and influence the direction of the government's industrial policy. The materials of the congresses show how deep and comprehensive the technical community's understanding of the needs of Russian industry was.

The study of archival documents and published materials shows that the work question (education, working hours, social insurance, child labor in production, the material and living situation of workers, etc.) was also discussed at the NTO congresses. 67 But, fearing an increase in public activity in solving the workers ' question, the tsarist government was very suspicious of the activities of technical societies in this direction.

The NTO carried out a great deal of cultural and educational work among the workers, opening technical schools, training workshops at factories and factories, professional courses, general education evening and Sunday classes in industrial centers of the country, organizing exhibitions, libraries, reading rooms, and museums. In 1903, the RTO only had 63 schools in St. Petersburg with a total number of 6888 students , 69 and the Society for the Dissemination of Technical Knowledge had 44 classes of technical drawing and drawing in various parts of Moscow, 70 . RTO, which has devoted considerable attention to solving the problems of lower, secondary, and higher technical education in its diverse activities for many years, is credited with developing the type of general evening and Sunday schools, special lower technical schools, and courses and classes for workers that best met the requirements of the time and the conditions in which their students were located .71 Public address-

66 Scientific and Technical Societies of the USSR, pp. 54-57, 68-71.

67 TsGIA of the USSR, f. 90, op. 1, dd. 11, 171, 630, 632; f. 741, op. 1, d. 34; f. 1282, op. 1, d. 316, ll. 163, 224-227; TsGIA of Moscow, f. 16, op 228, d. 250, ll. 1-11, 35; f. 179, op. 21, d. 286, ll. 1-22; Laverychev V. Ya. Tsarism and the working question in Russia (1861-1917). Moscow, 1972, pp. 33-45.

68 TsGIA OF THE USSR, f. 90, op. 1, l. 537, ll. 12-15; f. 1001, op. 1, d. 300; LGIA, f. 139, op. 1, d. 7380, ll. 2 - 5 vol.; d. 9546, ll. 7-8; d. 13 963, ll. 1-35; f. 2075, op. 6, d. 20, ll. 13-28, 74-112.

69 Report on RTO schools for the 1903/1904 academic year. SPb. 1904.

70 TsGIA of Moscow, f. 1587, op. 1, d. 1, ll. 1-8; f. 179, op. 23, d. 69, l. 3 vol.; op. 56, dd. 4, 156, 178; Report of the Society for the Dissemination of Technical Knowledge for 1903-1913. 1914.

71 imp. RTO schools. Addresses, staff, and lesson schedules. Reference book. St. Petersburg, 1883; Charters of the imp. RTO and its schools, St. Petersburg, 1897; Demchenko T. P. Cultural and educational activities of the branches of the Russian Technical Society in Ukraine in 1870-1914. Author's abstract of the cand. diss. Kiev, 1984.

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public figures advocated the introduction of universal primary education and the creation of a system of vocational and technical educational institutions funded by the treasury, stating that spending on education should not be an act of philanthropy, but a necessity that contributes directly to meeting the most urgent needs of the country in the interests of developing its productive forces.

Very popular were public lectures organized by the NTO, which dealt with major problematic issues of the development of Russian industry or the most important inventions that had a great prospect (electric welding, radio, aeronautics, photography, etc.). Lectures of an academic nature were also organized in separate scientific disciplines (chemistry, physics, electrical engineering, aircraft construction, etc.) in the form of whole sections. courses, special readings on a specific production, or specific topics of interest to technicians. Such lectures were given by the greatest representatives of Russian science-N. N. Beketov, N. E. Zhukovsky, V. L. Kirpichev, D. I. Mendeleev, N. P. Petrov, A. S. Popov, D. K. Chernov and others.

The initiative to disseminate scientific and technical knowledge in these years belonged to scientific societies and individual scientists; neither the Academy of Sciences, which was very far from public life at that time, nor other official scientific or educational institutions were engaged in this process .72 The technical libraries of public organizations were a great help in popularizing scientific knowledge, since there were no similar state libraries in most Russian provinces. One of the largest scientific libraries in St. Petersburg was the RTO library, which contained almost all the technical periodicals of that time, a significant amount of special literature in the form of monographs and various technical reference books and dictionaries. Literature lists compiled by the NTO and programs for self-education in certain branches of science and technology were very popular among young people.

A notable phenomenon in the cultural life of Russia was the NTO publishing activity, which was actively conducted for several decades and left a bright mark on the history of scientific and technical thought. Among the various publications of the NTO, a special place was occupied by periodicals 73, which covered the internal life of societies, scientific work, published research reports, abstracts of scientific reports and reports of scientists. NTO journals were of great importance in the dissemination of technical knowledge and information about technical and industrial innovations and inventions. Journals regularly reviewed the latest technical literature, provided information on published monographic studies with critical analysis, and articles published in journals, including foreign ones. In addition to information, the positive side of NTO periodicals was that their subjects and content corresponded to the level of development of science and technology, and to public needs. The journals reflected primarily issues that were of current importance for a particular industry sector during this period.

The journals published articles by L. I. Lutugin, N. P. Petrov, D. K. Chernov and others. More than 135 original reports by D. I. Mendeleev have been published in the RFHO Journal. The "RTO Notes" contain information about major scientific and technical projects: ideas of chemical IP-

72 Lazarevich E. A. Popularizatsiya nauki v Rossii [Popularization of science in Russia]. Moscow, 1981, pp. 127-131.

73 Filippov N. G. Nauchno-tekhnicheskie obshchestva Rossii [Scientific and Technical Societies of Russia], pp. 187-200. The most famous magazines were: "Notes of RTO", "Journal of RFHO", "Journal of RMO", "Electricity", "News of the Society of Mining Engineers", "Bulletin of the Society of Technologists".

page 44

oil use, Arctic exploration, construction of the Trans-Siberian railway, development of the eastern regions of the country, irrigation of dry lands, flood protection of St. Petersburg, construction of the Baku-Batumi oil pipeline, power plants, electrification of industry and transport, etc. 74 . As noted at the general meeting of RTO members, none of the technical journals has such an extensive and brilliant staff, and moreover free of charge, as "RTO Notes" 75 .

The activities of the NTO reflected the beating pulse of public life in Russia (providing assistance to the hungry, opening an infirmary for the wounded, participating in military-industrial committees, discussing the working question, factory legislation, etc.), as a result of which in the XX century the content of NTO magazines was significantly expanded, articles on topical topics of socio-economic development were published in them.of an economic nature. The scientific and technical community, speaking at congresses and in the press with criticism of the industrial policy of the government and in public education, thereby making a certain contribution to the" political denunciation " of tsarism, manifested itself as a force opposed to the autocratic system. The demand for democratic liberties , equality in civil rights - in the era of the monarchical system and unlimited autocracy-had a certain revolutionary significance.

Thus, noting the multi-faceted nature of NTO classes and the difference in their professional orientation, we can distinguish the main areas of activity that are inherent to one degree or another in the majority of public organizations of scientific and technical intelligentsia: scientific and technical work in departments and commissions; consulting assistance to industry; convening and holding congresses of scientists, technicians, and industry workers, as well as the organization of industrial exhibitions; organization of competitions, public readings, lectures, opening of schools and courses for workers; publication of magazines and special technical literature. All this drew attention to the activities of non-profit organizations and made them centers of technical life and cultural centers in the area where they existed.

The policy of tsarism in relation to public organizations during the entire period of capitalism had a pronounced anti-democratic character. The success of the NTO's activities was achieved due to the enthusiasm, creative initiative, patriotism, deep scientific interest in the problems posed and direct participation in the research work of outstanding Russian scientists and engineers who defended a large program for the development of the country's economy. In those conditions, they symbolized the intellectual power of the Russian people, being carriers of advanced technical ideas, contributing by their activities to the spiritual awakening of the creative forces of Russia. Progressive traditions of scientific and technical education were developed after the Great October Revolution, which opened up wide opportunities for involving workers in solving scientific and technical issues of the national economy and culture.

74 Chernyak A. Ya. Istoriya tekhnicheskoi knigi [History of the Technical Book], Part I. M. 1969, pp. 189-193; Garanina S. P. " Zapiski imp. Russian Technical Society " in the system of periodicals of the Russian Technical Society. Cand. diss. M. 1972.

75 Zapiski RTO, 1884, issues 5-6, p. 443.

76 Ibid., 1905, issue 5, pp. 149-151.

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