A.J. Toynbee about Byzantinism and Russia: the heritage of the Second Rome in civilizational dynamics The great British historian and philosopher Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889–1975) in his monumental work "The Study of History" considered the Russian civilization as one of the autonomous units of the universal historical process. The key to its understanding for him was the concept of "Byzantine heritage" or "Byzantinism", which determined the unique path of Russia, its institutions, mentality, and place in the world. Byzantinism as a civilizational choice By analyzing the genesis of civilizations through the mechanism of "Challenge and Response", Toynbee saw the adoption of Christianity from Constantinople (988) as a fundamental choice that predetermined the fate of Russia. This choice was not just religious, but also civilizationally-cultural. Russia, by accepting baptism from Byzantium, consciously entered the orbit of the Second Rome, inheriting: Political model: the idea of a symphony of powers (cooperation between secular and spiritual authority) and the sacralization of the figure of the ruler as the "external bishop" and the anointed tsar. The Moscow princes, and then the tsars, inherited the Byzantine concept of autocratic, divinely established power. Cultural and religious code: liturgical language (Church Slavonic), iconographic aesthetics, literary and legal canons. Russia became part of the Orthodox world, which separated it from the Latin West for centuries. Geopolitical mission: after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow realized itself as the "Third Rome" – the only legitimate heir and guardian of true Christianity. This messianic idea, formulated by the monk Philotheos, became, in Toynbee's opinion, the spiritual pillar of Russian expansion and imperial identity. Russia as a "daughter society" of Byzantium and its uniqueness Toynbee classified Russia as a "daughter society" of the Byzantine civilization, but with a critical reservation. It grew ... Читать далее