This paper discusses the political importance of religious identity in the context of competition between Orthodoxy and Buddhism in the Buryat spiritual space in the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. Christianization of Buryats as well as other non-Russians in the remote regions of Russia seemed a necessary tool for strengthening the borders of the empire, which were under threat from Qing China. While Christianization of Pre-Baikal (Western) Buryats-shamanists was quite successful at least formally, the Trans-Baikal Buryats remained largely steadfast Buddhists. Considering this fact, the secular authorities built relationships with the Buddhist clergy within the framework of the existing legal regulations. However, the relationship between Orthodoxy and Buddhism was

Amogolonova D., Sodnompilova M. Religion and Identity in Buryatia: the Competition of Orthodoxy and Buddhism in the Late Imperial Period (based on the materials of St. Petersburg archives). Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2017. N 2. pp. 241-263.

Amogolonova, Darima, Sodnompilova, Marina (2017) "Religion and Identity in Buryatia: Competition between Orthodoxy and Buddhism in Late Imperial Russia (On Materials from St. Petersburg Archives)", Gosudarstvo, religiia, tserkov' v Rossii i za rubezhom 35(2): 241-263.

The research was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, Project 14-18-00444 "Buddhism in Socio-political and cultural processes in Russia, Inner and Eastern Asia: Transformations and Prospects".

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irreconcilable overall in imperial history. The situation worsened at the end of the nineteenth century, when in connection with the Buryat ethnonational movements, Buddhism began to spread among the Western Buryats. This caused serious problems in Irkutsk eparchy, where they believed that only Orthodoxy could ensure loyalty to the monarchy and the Empire. Meanwhile, loyalty to the state, including the deification of the monarch, was an inherent characteristic of Buddhism both abroad and in Russia. In addition to a strong adaptive ability, institutionalized Buddhism in Russia developed adoration and devotion to the Tsar among Buryats through appropriate preaching to believers, thus promoting and strengthening both its own position and the Russian identity of the Buryats.

Keywords: Orthodoxy, Buddhism, religious identity, Buryats, Russian empire, spiritual space, baptizing, Buddhization, ethnonational revival, Irkutsk eparchy, religious community.

Introduction

Among the many social identities, the religious one occupies one of the most significant places due to its consolidating and political-mobilization potential. Therefore, throughout the history of the development of Siberia, the baptism of gentiles was conceived as the most important tool for strengthening Russian statehood and introducing non-Russians to"progressive values":

The concept of world history (universal chronology) and the idea of the absolute superiority of "modern" over "ancient" were recently imported from Germany and played a crucial role in the state project of "growing up". ...Foreigners became people not only "from another land", but also from another time. Children should be baptized and taught to write 1.

Until the first decades of the 19th century, Buddhism was seen as a backward pagan cult, and the attitude to it was the same as to various shamanic beliefs of the Buryats, Evenks, and Yakuts,

1. Slezkin Yu. Arctic Mirrors: Russia and small peoples of the North. Moscow: UFO, 2008. p. 68. The term inozemtsy in this case implies non-Russians, natives, and unbaptized.

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Chukchi people. The change in attitude towards Buddhism towards its recognition, institutionalization and inclusion in the number of" recognized and tolerant " faiths was dictated by pragmatic goals. Despite this, the Buddhist community in Russia-an Orthodox state-and, accordingly, the Buddhist religious identity was presented to the authorities as an alien evil, with which it was necessary to simultaneously fight and maintain tolerant relations. The Christianization of non-believers, including shamanists and Buddhists, was considered a strategic task, an element of the formation of Russian identity and patriotism. Ultimately, it was about Russification, and the tool for this was the widespread spread of Orthodoxy and the Russian language:

We still don't have two Russians for every Gentile, and we can barely count two Orthodox Christians for every Gentile... The territorial remoteness in which the alien settlements are still located from the center of Russian life not only naturally hindered the merging of foreigners with the main population of the state, but also led to the fact that this population was almost completely unfamiliar with their foreigners.2
Allowing Buddhists to practice their religion and including Buddhism in an institutionalized form in the imperial bureaucracy were associated with tactical tasks both at home and internationally. 3
Christianization - the path to Russian identity?

The tolerant attitude of the Russian authorities towards Buddhism is a fact, but this does not mean that Buddhism was treated with understanding and respect. The relationship between the state and the Buddhist community was regulated by a number of rules and regulations, which took the most complete form in the Situation

2. Pozdneev A.M. Note on the activities of the Missionary Institute at the Moscow Pokrovsky Monastery. October 4, 1895 / / Archive of Orientalists of the IVR RAS. A. M. Pozdneev Foundation. f. 44. Op. 1. D. 125. L. 2.

3. On the one hand, the institutionalization of Buddhism served the purpose of strengthening control over the Buryat population and preventing the activities of foreign clergy who could cause political and ideological damage to Russia. On the other hand, Russian Buddhists, who freely practiced their religion, clearly testified to the tolerance of the Orthodox empire towards non-Orthodox people, which was important from the point of view of Russia's interests in Central Asia.

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on the Lamai clergy in Eastern Siberia (1853). However, the attitude of the Orthodox Church to Buddhism throughout the history of the struggle for spiritual space in the region remained irreconcilable, and "by the end of the XIX century, this opposition had escalated to the limit"4. The failures of the neighborhood policy were mainly attributed to the Buddhist clergy, who enjoy authority and influence among the Buryat population: "lamas strongly frighten foreigners when accepting the Christian faith"; " foreigners for the most part hold very firmly to their superstitions; but not because they are convinced of their truth, because they are unfamiliar with the truths of their faith; and therefore that they regard these superstitions as the legitimate faith of the Mongols, and even more out of fear from the lamas than from their own authorities, who act in concert with the lamas. There are so many lamas and so often they travel around the ulus that foreigners are completely enslaved by the lamas. " 5
However, the real reason, of course, was that Orthodox priests and officials, who persistently called Buddhism paganism, did not want to understand the meaning of the Buddhist faith and go into the reasons for its influence on both the traditionally Buddhist Eastern and pre-Baikal Buryats, whose Buddhization accelerated during the XIX century. reports of the diocesan leadership to the Synod. Thus, back in 1841, Archbishop Nil of Irkutsk wrote::

There are already many Christians from the Alar and Balagan Buryats. This number, and in general the disposition of these tribes to spiritual enlightenment, increases from year to year, because the Clergy have the opportunity to act on them with greater convenience than on others... Because between them the dominant belief is Shamanic, whose followers are much closer to Buddhists to Christianity. Unfortunately, lamas from Zabaikal began to sneak up on them. And were supported by the Ancestral Chiefs-Taishami 6, always

4. Tsyrempilov N. V. Buddhism and Empire. Buryat Buddhist Community in Russia (XVIII-early XX century). Ulan-Ude: IMBT SB RAS, 2013, p. 231.

5. Office of the Synod. Missionary work. Report of the Irkutsk Bishop on the state of the Irkutsk Diocese for 1861 with data on the activities of missionaries // Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA). F. 796. Op. 442. D. 51. Ll. 14, 26.

6. Taisha or taishi - the Mongol peoples have a hereditary generic title. Since the middle of the 19th century, the Buryats have held a position where representatives of the steppe Duma or department were elected, and the elected person was confirmed by the Irkutsk Governor-General.

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enemies of Christianity, significantly change the spirit in the tribes" (preserved the style of the original document. - Ed.) 7.

The identification and consolidating role of Buddhism has been very noticeable since the end of the 19th century, i.e., since the birth of the Buryat national movement. At the same time, the desire of the Orthodox Church to consolidate its position among the Buryats is also growing, often characterized by extreme manifestations in the form of forced baptism, examples of which are quite numerous, although only a part of them is reflected in documents, in particular, in complaints addressed to the Irkutsk Governor-General. It is noteworthy that the complaints of pre-Baikal Buryats often mention Buddhist religious affiliation, which is the main obstacle to the adoption of Orthodoxy:

"They demanded me, and here they announced to me that I should accept Orthodoxy. Professing the Buddhist religion (Lamai), I did not want to ignore her, and seeing her insistence, I was forced to hide and really went to the taiga, leaving my pregnant wife at home"8 (who was baptized in the church, where she was dragged unconscious after being beaten 9). It should be noted that forced baptisms in the 1890s were the result of official zeal in order to mark by increasing the number of baptists (no matter what methods were used) a significant event - a visit to the Buryat territories in 1891 by the heir-Tsarevich Nicholas. The perpetrators of forced baptism claimed that "such baptism is made at the request and order of the Sovereign of the Tsarevich's Heir, and therefore complaints... they will have no consequences. " 10
From the point of view of those who performed the task of baptism, non-Orthodox converts did not actually become Christians: "Most of them know Christianity

7. To the Most Holy Governing Synod of the Nile, Archbishop of Irkutsk, Report of March 24, 1841. Epiphany of the Buryats. F. 796. Op. 122. D. 402. L. 3.

8. Petitions from residents of the Balagan district to the Irkutsk Governor-General with a description of the forced baptism performed on them and requests for an investigation and bringing the perpetrators to justice. Nachalo 1891. / / RGIA. F. 797. Op. 96. D. 103. L. 11.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

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only by name " 11. And the Buryats who were given authority were baptized for career reasons, while remaining religiously Buddhist or shamanistic: a report to the Synod of the Irkutsk bishop describes in detail that the former taisha of the Tunka non-Russians, as well as his son who became taisha, received state awards for converting non-Russians to the Christian faith. However, both of them still remain idolaters, not only in their inner conviction, but also in their outward appearance. When I visited his house, which consists of two large rooms, I saw an icon of St. Nicholas in the hall, and in the second and main one I met the entire front wall, covered with idols carved and painted, some of which are depicted exactly in the form in which evil spirits are painted... Old Taisha secretly harbors even a hostile feeling towards Christianity 12.

Having received an offer to immediately get rid of the "idols", passing them to one of the sons who became a lama, the former taisha " refused decisively... and he replied that he would never part with his idols-protectors " 13.

Suspicion of an alien religion led the defenders of Orthodoxy to look for subversive elements in Buddhism. To do this, of course, it was necessary to become more or less familiar with the basics of the faith, which both the priests of the diocese and the Orthodox missionaries were engaged in. The search for a hostile meaning concerned not only the activities of the Buddhist clergy, but also religious teaching. It is noteworthy that the search for malicious content of Buddhist sermons and prayers was also carried out by those who had lived near the Buryats for a long time, observed the practical life of Buddhists and made efforts to understand Buddhist culture. Irkutsk priest I. A. Podgorbunsky, known for his outstanding knowledge of the Buryats, author of numerous works on Buddhism and shamanism, and collector of religious traditions.-

11. Report of the Irkutsk bishop on the state of the Irkutsk Diocese for 1861 with data on the activities of missionaries / / RGIA. F. 796. Op. 442. D. 51. L. 12.

12. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

13. Ibid.

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He sharply criticized the prayers composed by Khambo Lama Gomboev14 about the longevity and prosperity of the House of Romanov. In 1891. Podgorbunsky presented in the "Irkutsk Diocesan Vedomosti" his arguments on whether the religious feelings and Russian patriotism of the head of the Buryat Buddhists are sincere:

In newer forms of Buddhism, it is true, prayers have also appeared, but in them Buddhists still pray for what they believe is the highest good, i.e., they pray for a better rebirth that would put them on the path to Nirvana, that is, non - existence , or at least unconsciousness being, and the attainment of nirvana itself. Dampil Gomboevich, on the other hand, prays that the Supreme God Buddha and the supreme God who grants immortality will give the Sovereign Emperor and the Heir Tsarevich a long life, that is, he prays for what is considered the greatest misfortune from the point of view of Buddhism. Thus, it turns out one of two things: either the author of the prayer, under the guise of happiness, wishes the greatest misfortune to the Sovereign Emperor and Heir Tsarevich, or he renounces for the sake of something the most basic teaching of Buddhism, which is consciously his personal life, and asks the Buddha for what the latter forbade asking... Wishing the Sovereign Emperor Nirvana, of course, was inconvenient and indecent. Meanwhile, it was necessary to draw attention to themselves and the entire lam corporation as patriots, in view of some goals. And now the head of Buddhism among the Buryats, who is obliged to take care of preserving its integrity, is the first to sacrifice his religion to some calculations.15
14. X Pandito Khambo Lama Dampil Gomboev (1831-1896) - Buryat religious leader, head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia in 1876-1896.

15. Archive of Orientalists of the IVR RAS. Foundation 62. Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano Foundation. Op. 1. D. 114. L. 208-209. The controversy between I. A. Podgorbunsky and I. Vambotsyrenov of Khorinsky taisha on the pages of Irkutsk Diocesan Vedomosti and Vostochny Obozreniye, respectively, is presented in the manuscript archive of Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano in the section "Articles and fragments of articles on Buddhism and Lamaism". A selection of materials shows that even as a student Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano was keenly interested in the problem of relations between Christianity and Buddhism in the territories inhabited by Buryats. Ts.Zh. Zhamtsarano (1881-1942) was an outstanding Buryat intellectual, specialist in the field of culture of the Mongolian peoples, and in the post - revolutionary period a Buryat and Mongolian politician.

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It is noteworthy that such an interpretation of Buddhist soteriology in relation to the realities of cross-cultural interaction caused a negative reaction even in the newspaper-journal of politics and literature "Citizen", known for extreme monarchism. In the article "On the tactlessness and rudeness of the Diocesan Vedomosti", I. A. Podgorbunsky's speech was called the boldest and most rude manifestation of " on the one hand, ignorance and, on the other hand, unreasonable intolerance that goes beyond all limits." Further, the "Citizen" supports its point of view with evidence of loyalty to the Buryats. In modern terms, we are talking about evidence of the Russian identity of Buryat Buddhists, which is expressed in the following: the adoration and deification of tsarist persons by broad masses of Buryats, which is confirmed, in particular, by the fact that during the passage of the heir of Nikolai Alexandrovich "through such areas where the Tsarevich was in the crowd of Buddhists for whole days", Buryats served with him as coachmen, he was also guarded by Buryat horsemen, and " hundreds of Buryats rushed to the Tsarevich's carriage and, not daring to touch it, took sand from the wheels and carried it away, kissing it as a shrine... And these Buddhists or Buryats prayed for the safe journey of the Heir to the Russian Throne, they prayed and the sincerity of their prayers was sufficiently confirmed by the sincerity of all manifestations of not only order, not only devotion, but also adoration " 16. Another confirmation of the undoubted loyalty, that is, Russian identity, of the Buryats is the pace and desire of the Buryats to master the Russian language, as well as they perform the most important political function of protecting the imperial borders.

The materials of Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano contain an abstract of an article in the St. Petersburg "Government Bulletin" for 1892, which presented a general (although, of course, incomplete) picture of the formation of Russian patriotism among the Buryats, which was facilitated by the Buddhist religion. Having made a preliminary conclusion that "militant Buddhism does not exist among our lamas and even less is its promotion at state expense," the Government Bulletin calls the noticeable and active Russification of the Buryats "artless and naturally reasonable," making the Buryats "not stagnant, anti-

16. The article "On the tactlessness and rudeness of the Diocesan Gazette", published in the" Citizen " on 18.12.1891, is quoted from the archive of Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano, edict. source: l. 206-208.

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a culturally minded mass, and the conductors of Russian influence in Central Asia, unwaveringly loyal servants of the White Tsar they deify by exemplary performers of their civic duties." Regarding the relationship between Buddhism and Orthodoxy, the Government Bulletin presents a rather blissful picture, finding Buryat Buddhists to be people of "rare religious tolerance... and in confirmation of this leads... that the mission churches in Eastern Siberia are supported by pagan Buryats... they visit Orthodox churches, learn Christian prayers, etc.". Comparison of Buryats with Kalmyk Buddhists vividly illustrates that it is the Buryats who have reached a higher level of loyalty to the Russian state:

If we compare the conditions in which the East Siberian Buddhists are placed with those in which our European Kalmyks are placed , the latter will find themselves in much more favorable conditions. The degree of Russification is much lower than in the Baikal territories, however, nothing is written about it, although these foreigners are within a three-day distance from Moscow 17.

With some, if not approval of Buddhism, then at least understanding of the fact that the Buddhist religion does not harm the formation of the Russian identity of the Buryats ("you can see that they are more honest and loyal than a thousand Orthodox people by name" 18), Russification through Christianization and the introduction of a Russian-speaking school system seemed to be the most effective and fruitful steps in this direction education, as well as tougher restrictive measures against Buddhism. This matter seemed so important that in response to the proposal of the Governor-General of the Amur region A. N. Korf to take measures "To facilitate Christian preaching in Transbaikalia", a special meeting was held in St. Petersburg to develop legislative measures to restrict the activities of Buddhist clergy and introduce primary education in Russian (with the obligatory teaching of the Law of God).. The level of representation at the meeting was

17. Archive of Orientalists of the IVR RAS. Foundation 62. Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano Foundation. Op. 1. d. 114. L. 211.

18. Ibid., l. 206.

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high, which indicated the seriousness of the intentions of the central authorities: the Minister of state Property, the Synod's Prosecutor General, the Minister of Internal Affairs, the Amur Governor-General, the manager of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The decision was in line with Korf's proposals and included support for the dissemination of general education among Trans-Baikal foreigners, which "deserves full respect as a measure that most contributes to the rapprochement of foreigners with the Russian population. In these cases, it is highly desirable to open as many public schools as possible in Transbaikalia. To implement this measure, as well as to improve the "missionary situation" in general, it was decided to find money from the treasury "in view of this very important matter." In addition, Korf proposed to improve the composition of missionaries, to improve missionary churches, and to change some of the conditions of church rites, "under which pagans now find it difficult to receive holy baptism." 19
Intercommunal understanding - a two-way process

Although preaching and charity policy were important in themselves, they could not bring the desired result. Success could be achieved through the steps of the preachers themselves to get closer to the carriers of a foreign culture:

The servants of Christ, going to the languages (that is, to the pagans-non-Orthodox subjects of the empire-Auth.), made every effort to enlighten them with the light of the Gospel teaching; but what could they do, first of all, if their knowledge of the language, beliefs and way of life of foreigners was insufficient? Some of the O. O. missionaries in their 30s and 40s took up the study of languages, but having no manuals or studies before them, forced to be guided only by personal experience and understanding, they unwittingly formed one-sided, often completely wrong concepts both about individual words and about whole expressions, and this was not the case. it is all the more sad that the mentioned one-sidedness should not have been applied to the pre-Soviet period.-

19. Journal of the special meeting on measures to facilitate Christian preaching in Transbaikalia / / RGIA. F. 797. Op. 62 (2 ed., 3 st.). d. 300. L. 4-5.

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of everyday metas, namely, before defining the concepts of metaphysical and transcendental. Two peoples, distinguished by their numbers, have always and primarily attracted the attention of the pastors of our Church; in general, we will call these peoples the Tatar, who professed Mohammedanism, and the Mongol, who were devoted to the faith of Buddha; and among both of these peoples, our activity at first appeared to be exactly the same.20
Let us note the position of the outstanding Orientalist on the need to" fight " against Buddhism and pay attention to the tactical program of actions proposed by him, aimed, first, at mastering the culture of foreigners, and then, secondly, at gradually introducing into their consciousness the idea of the superiority of Christianity over Buddhism. After all, without having knowledge of someone else's religion, it is impossible to resist such a judgment, for example, expressed by the head of the Kuytinsky foreign ministry Tsyaran Tukhaev in response to the accusation that he, while holding a high official post, did not accept Orthodoxy: "Because my religion teaches to love one's neighbor, do good, tell the truth, do not accept Christianity." slander, etc. " 21.

Therefore, whatever the ultimate goals, A. M. Pozdneev encourages students of the Missionary Institute to master knowledge about the Buryat culture and, consequently, to achieve mutual understanding and trust. As a major orientalist-Mongol scholar, an outstanding researcher of Buddhism and Mongolian written monuments, Pozdneev encouraged young missionaries to make every effort to become highly educated specialists capable of convincing through deep knowledge. The missionary institute had to meet similar requirements, namely::

Having set as its goal the preparation of persons for the dissemination of the Gospel teaching among non-native Mongolian speakers,

20. Pozdneev A.M. Note on the activities of the Missionary Institute at the Moscow Pokrovsky Monastery. October 4, 1895 / / Archive of Orientalists of the IVR RAS. A. M. Pozdneev Foundation. f. 44. Op. 1. D. 125. L. 2-3. A. M. Pozdneev (1851-1920) - author of fundamental works based on personal field materials, including "Essays on the life of Buddhist monasteries and Buddhist clergy in Mongolia in connection with the relations of this latter to the people".

21. Letter of the Head of the Kuytin foreign ministry Tsyaryan Tukhaev / / Archive of Orientalists of the IVR RAS. Materials from the Ukhtomsky E. E. archive Category III. Op. 1. d. 13. L. 11-12.

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A missionary institute should first enable its pupils to acquire both theoretical and practical knowledge of the foreign language.22
By the way, back in 1840, Archbishop Nil of Irkutsk, in a letter to the Synod, described the importance of a good knowledge of the Buryat language, traditions and way of life. Orthodox missionaries did not possess this quality, while English missionaries in the vicinity of Selenginsk " attract the respectful attention of the people, know the language and customs of the Mongols well, and own a Mongolian printing house (emphasis added). - Auth.), have handy people to run errands, maintain schools for Buryat children and provide for them, can give shelter to the poor and help them if they are well off " 23.

As for Buddhism, which is called "the subject of their future struggle", Pozdneev advises to study not Buddhism as a whole, but that particular form of it that existed among the Buryats in order to explain the "inconsistency of its teachings". In other words, the scientist suggests considering the religious identity of Buryats taking into account the realities of Central Asian Buddhism:

Such a statement may seem strange in view of the mass of research on Buddhism that has been carried out by the British, French, and, finally, Russians, in the works of Professors Vasiliev, Minaev, and others. < ... > The Buddhism they study is actually Sakyamuniatstvo and Mahayana, i.e., Buddhism, which appears in the forms in which, according to the beliefs of Buddhists, it appeared It comes from the mouth of Sakyamuni Buddha himself and the first interpreters of his doctrines. < ... > In the confession of our foreigners, however, there is another Buddhism-Buddhism reformed by Tsonghavoy and called Lamaism proper. This latter Buddhism has not been studied in either Russian or European literature, although it should certainly constitute an independent subject of study, since the teachings of the Buddha and Tsonghava were based not only on different, but even opposite foundations, and therefore their doctrines were established on completely different bases.

22. Pozdneev A.M. Note on the activities of the Missionary Institute at the Moscow Pokrovsky Monastery. October 4, 1895, l. 6.

23. Letter from Nil, Archbishop of Irkutsk, to the Holy Governing Synod of March 26, 1840. Missionary work in Transbaikalia. The case of the spread of Orthodoxy among the Buryats in Transbaikalia. Fund 796. Op. 110. D. 805. L. 97.

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In their early beginnings and development, they have reached the point where the ultimate goals of one faith are almost completely ignored by another. 24
This last remark has an important meaning in the context of our research. Recognizing the real difference between the Buryat Buddhist cultural complex and others, mainly in the ritual sphere, Pozdneev points out the need to get acquainted not only with the dogmatic foundations of religion, but also with the whole set of specific religious ideas and practices that form the ethnic picture of the world and, very importantly, political ideas about the world order. Consequently, the study of the religious culture of others contained in Pozdneev's appeals suggested a rapprochement between ethno-cultural communities and further religious homogenization based on Orthodoxy , the mainstay of Russian identity.

So, Orthodoxy, as the only state religion of the Russian Empire, tried in every possible way to narrow the social base of Buddhism by increasing the number of baptized Buryats. The reasons for the failure of this activity were seen in several circumstances.

First, the missionaries did not speak the Buryat language, and therefore were forced to resort to translators - simple people who were unable to convey "the most original truths of the faith." To overcome this difficulty in communicating between missionaries and foreigners, Bishop Eusebius of Irkutsk 25 suggested that 7 or 8 young people who had received higher or secondary education in the seminary, as well as children of baptized Buryats, should be selected to receive full missionary and university education in the Mongolian language.26
24. Pozdneev A.M. Note on the activities of the Missionary Institute at the Moscow Pokrovsky Monastery. October 4, 1895, l. 6.

25. Eusebius-Bishop of Irkutsk and Nerchinsk (1856-1860), elevated to the rank of archbishop in 1858. On his initiative, the teaching of the Mongolian language was introduced at the Irkutsk Theological Seminary in order to improve the work of baptism and Orthodox preaching among the Buryats. Participated in sending the 14th Beijing Ecclesiastical Mission to China. He made several trips to the diocese, including the remote northern regions.

26. Decision of the Synod of 7.05.1858 on the report on the state of missionary work in Transbaikalia. The case is based on the report of His Eminence Irkutsk on the state of the Trans-Baikal Territory and on the assumptions of His Eminence, and on measures for the successful development of the Trans-Baikal Territory.-

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Secondly, the missionaries could not prove the advantages of Christian soteriology over Buddhism, because they had no idea about the Buddhist teaching and the Buddhist conceptual apparatus and, consequently, were not able to preach among the Buryat Buddhists in terms of their religion. Bishop Parthenius 27, appointed to the Irkutsk see in 1860., immediately took a difficult journey through the diocese, including its remote parts. What was new was that Parthenius not only inspected the missionary camps (by the way, he was extremely dissatisfied with their activities) and collected information about the number of newly baptized people, but also tried to find out about the attitude of the Buryats to Christianity and about the opposition from his opponents, as well as "find people both Christians and foreigners, which could provide possible assistance in the conversion of non-Russians to Christianity." Parthenius invited the missionary Archpriest Dorontyev - Buryat and a former Buddhist lama to accompany him "For help in observing foreigners" and to establish better contact with the Buddhists, who contributed to the success of missionary sermons: he made several very significant trips... for collecting information about the position of non-russians in relation to their disposition to Christianity... Over the course of a year, he converted more than 50 people to Christ and gathered some useful information for drafting a project on mission education.28
The irreconcilable position of Orthodoxy in relation to Buddhism was explained not only by the belief that foreign, that is, alien, religions a priori contain a threat from the outside-

Introduction of the Mongol-Buryats to the Christian faith and so on. / / RGIA. f. 796. Op. 139. Ed. hr. 275. l. 6.

27. Parthenius-Bishop of Irkutsk and Nerchinsk (1860-1873), elevated to the rank of archbishop in 1863. He created two separate missions in the Irkutsk Diocese - the Irkutsk and Trans-Baikal ones. He actively traveled around the diocese with the surrounding goals; thanks to the intensification of missionary activity during his work, 11 thousand Buryats, Tungus (Evenks) and other representatives of the indigenous ethnic groups of Siberia were converted to Orthodoxy. On his submission to the Synod in Irkutsk in 1863, the publication of the Irkutsk Diocesan Gazette began.

28. Report of the Irkutsk bishop on the state of the Irkutsk Diocese for 1861 with data on the activities of missionaries / / RGIA. F. 796. Op. 442. D. 51. Ll. 25, 51.

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political manipulation, but also the fact that the religions of non-Orthodox subjects are the basis of anti-Orthodox and anti-Russian sentiments 29. Indeed, despite considerable pressure, the Buddhist Buryats, who were referred to in the empire as" foreigners"," non-Orthodox"," pagans", and"idolaters" 30, retained their ethno-cultural identity and religious affiliation. N. V. Tsyrempilov notes the reasons for the stability of the Buddhist community:

In essence, the ethnic identity of the Buryats was actualized within the system of Buddhist monastic parishes, while the tribal self-government bodies, on the contrary, divided the Buryats according to the tribal principle. Being part of an empire dominated by Orthodox Christianity, the Buryats saw Buddhism as the most powerful pivot around which they could mobilize their ethnic identity. 31
At the same time, despite the very painful process of formation and strengthening of the Buddhist community in the face of prohibitive laws, institutionalized Buddhism in Buryatia has always sought to show and prove its loyalty to the empire and nurtured in its followers loyal feelings towards the monarchy and the state. Thus, the Buddhist religious identity of the Buryats became inseparable from the Russian identity. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the previously existing and now existing idea of the cultural space, according to which Orthodoxy is the religion of the Russians, and Buddhism is the religion of the Buryats. Religion contributes to the strengthening of ethnic identity, belonging to a group that ensures not only the transmission of traditions from generation to generation, but also a sense of security at the personal level. It should probably be taken into account that the rapprochement of the Buryats with the Russian-

29.It was not for nothing that the Department of Spiritual Affairs and Confessions of the Ministry of the Interior was responsible for Buddhist affairs.

30. According to the decree of Nicholas II "On strengthening the principles of religious tolerance" of 1905, it was forbidden to refer to Lamaites as pagans and idolaters in official documents. And in 1917. The Provisional Government approved the draft law "On naming Lamaites in official acts as Buddhists" (On naming Lamaites in official documents as Buddhists / / RGIA. F. 1276. Op. 14. D. 657).

31. Tsyrempilov N. V. Buddhism and Empire. p. 196.

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Such factors as Christianization, proficiency in the Russian language, European education, similarity in everyday life, for example, wearing European clothes, did not guarantee the Buryats that they would be treated as equals. A very illustrative example is given in the diaries of the orientalist Bazar Baradin, who made an expedition to Transbaikalia in 1904 on behalf of the Russian Committee 32. Together with his camera-equipped group, he encountered the "anxiety" of several Russian officers. The reason for this concern was that we were very different in appearance from ordinary Buryats... They were also not a little surprised that we did not show them the kind of low worship that they usually expect from any Buryat they almost meet... Of course, it would not have been difficult for us to reassure them, but this was prevented by a certain sense of resentment that even intelligent Russian people like this cannot look at the Buryats a little more broadly and sympathetically. 33
The "Buryat Revival" and the politicization of Buddhist identity (from the late 19th century until the 1917 Revolution)

It would seem that this episode, although it reflects the general picture of the attitude of the ethnic and cultural majority to the minority in the Russian Empire, is not directly related to the question of religious identity. However, he points out the reasons for the politicization of Buddhist religious affiliation during the Buryat renaissance in the late 19th century, when ethnic and national leaders used the Buryat cultural heritage in order to consolidate the Buryat people and educate their national spirit. The socio-political climate in Russia at the end of the 19th century influenced the formation of the socio-political system of the Russian Federation.

32. The Russian Committee for the Study of Central and Eastern Asia in Historical, Archaeological and Linguistic Terms was an Oriental research organization (1902-1914) created on the initiative of major orientalists of various specialties. The committee's activities were aimed at preserving and studying the material and spiritual culture of the peoples of the East.

33. Bazar Baradin, a freelance student of the St. Petersburg University, diary of Buryat datsans (1903-1904) / Podg. to the publ., preface, commentary, index - D. S. Zhamsueva. Ulan-Ude: BSC SB RAS Publishing House, 2013, p. 83. B. B. Baradin (Baradiyn) (1878-1937)-Buryat orientalist, writer and playwright, first People's Commissar of Education of the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Republic.

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It also contributed to the formation of the worldview of Buryat intellectuals. The movement of Buryat "narodniks", in which prominent Buryat figures Agvan Dorzhiev, Tsyben Zhamtsarano, Elbek-Dorji Rinchino, Mikhail Bogdanov took part, considered the Buddhist religion as an important means of national awakening. Along with cultural pan-Mongolism, the goal of the movement was all-Buryat integration through the promotion of Buddhism among shamanists, which, of course, caused concern on the part of the authorities. After all, the Provision of 1890 "On the removal of spiritual affairs of the Lamaists of the Irkutsk province from the jurisdiction of the Hambo Lama" pursued the goals of dividing the Buryats by religious and territorial affiliation and reducing the Buddhist influence on pre-Baikal shamanists as the main object of Christianization. Now the Buryat populists called for the unity of all Buryats on the basis of a single religion, which was contrary to imperial policy.

The report "On the movement among the Buryats and in the Buryat schools" by an unknown author, submitted to the Department of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, described the activities of the Buryat cultural, educational and political organizations "Banner of the Buryat people, or the Union of Buryat teachers and figures in public Education", "Society of Education of Buryats", " Party of Progressives Buryat", "Union of Buryat students": "The ultimate goal, which all these organizations have the same vision, is not a small one. They believe in the possibility and even inevitability of cultural pan-Mongolism and strive to implement this idea in reality. " 34 Thus, the congress of the Banner of the Buryat People (1906), called "the most vociferous" in its report, set ambitious, though insufficiently clearly formulated tasks, namely, to promote the national revival of the Buryats, to promote the development of the Buryat people. to educate them, nationalize schools, achieve national self-determination and Buryat independence-

34. O dvizhenie sredi buryat i buryatskikh shkolakh [On the movement among Buryats and Buryat schools]. In those years, Buryat leaders did advocate the revival of cultural ties between the Buryats and the Mongols, but political pan-Mongolism took shape later, after the declaration of independence of Outer Mongolia. Nevertheless, for both the imperial authorities and the Soviet authorities, slogans calling for the revival of historical and cultural memory became synonymous with political separatism and high treason.

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nomii 35. Given the sloganlike nature of the political goals, the tools and mechanisms of national revival were more clearly indicated. The main consolidating role was assigned to the Buddhist religion, since "Buddhism was for the intellectual elite the embodiment of the" national spirit"and a symbol of unity between the Buryats and the Mongols" 36.

Nationalization of schools and teaching of subjects related to religion in them were considered as means of educating the Buryat self-consciousness, and therefore attention was paid to the question of the confessional content of lessons: "for Buddhists and Buddhists, teaching the teachings of the Buddha is permissible, for Orthodox-the teachings of Christ"37. It is important to note the special interest shown by the participants of the congress in the Buryats of Irkutsk, Kudinsk,and Verkholensk who "continued to practice shamanism and were entirely under Russian influence in education and literacy".38 The author of the report writes that Buddhist preachers are making efforts to convert these shamanists to Buddhism, since in the dark, bearish corners under consideration, the religious movement could serve as the only impetus for arousing social self-activity, because there are no other driving factors there. < ... > Buryat shamanists, with the perception of Buddhism, will gradually learn the highest moral values. They will expand their spiritual horizons, become familiar with their native Mongolian-Buryat writing and literature, and will themselves, following the example of their Trans-Baikal relatives, write and read their thoughts in Buryat. < ... > The Irkutsk Buryats, a small part of the entire Mongolian people, are only one of the closest points for carrying out the idea of revival 39.

Despite the persistent monarchical sentiments among the Buddhist clergy, the ideas of the Buryat people were also close to him.-

35. About the movement among Buryats and Buryat schools.

36. Skrynnikova T. D., Varnavsky P. K., Dyrheeva G. A. Buryat ethnicity in the context of socio-cultural modernization (late XIX-first third of XX centuries). Irkutsk: Ottisk Publ., 2003, p. 52.

37. About the movement among Buryats and Buryat schools.

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid.

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chestva. The most striking example was the activity of the XII Hambo Lama Dashi-Dorjo Itigelov (1911-1917). He fully supported the tsarist policy, and during the First World War made great efforts to raise funds in support of the Russian army and the families of the dead, sent emchi lamas (doctors) to front-line hospitals to treat the wounded. Nevertheless, immediately after the February Revolution, he supported the Provisional Government and became actively involved in political activities. This was facilitated by the initiatives of the new State authorities in the field of democratic transformation, namely the equalization of the rights of all citizens and religions and the establishment of religious freedom. In the short period from March to August 1917, the Provisional Government adopted several important decisions on Buddhism. In addition to prominent scholars of Oriental studies (B. Ya. Vladimirtsov, V. L. Kotvich, S. F. Oldenburg, A.D. Rudnev) and officials who had a broad knowledge of the Buryats and Buddhism (Minister of Confessions A.V. Kartashev, Associate Minister of Confessions Prof. S. A. Kotlyarevsky, E. E. Ukhtomsky), there was a fundamental novelty in their development. and Buryat Buddhists (A. Dorzhiev, S.-Zh. Zhigzhitov). The "Decree of the Provisional Government on the abolition of religious and national restrictions" of March 20, 1917 abolished all discriminatory restrictions of the "Regulations on Lamai Clergy" of 1853 and the Provisions "On the withdrawal of spiritual affairs of Lamaites of the Irkutsk province from the jurisdiction of Bandido-Hamba": ... the competence of the Hambo Lama as the spiritual head of Buddhists in Eastern Siberia was limited <...The former government motivated the expediency of removing Irkutsk Buddhists from Bandido-Hamba, among other things, by the difference that allegedly exists in the everyday living conditions of the Buryats of the Trans-Baikal Region and the Irkutsk province, but the main reason was the need to weaken the propaganda of Lamaism among local pagans and facilitate the spread of Christianity among them, which, in the opinion of the government, prevented association of spiritual affairs managers of Siberian Lamaites in the person of the first Lama. At the present time, with the changed state system, the motives that led to the publication of the law of July 1889 and its further maintenance in force, as well as the preservation of the instructions based on it, have completely lost their significance.-

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a violation of the principles of broad religious freedom proclaimed by the Provisional Government for Irkutsk Lamaites 40.

Extensive postal and telegraphic correspondence between Hambo Lama Itigelov and the Provisional Government suggests that the initiatives of the new authorities have caused a response among the Buryat public and, in particular, the Buddhist clergy. The prohibitive nature of the legislation in relation to Buddhism has changed to the opposite, demonstrating respect for religious feelings and not questioning the Russian identity of Buryats. For the first time, Russian Buddhists were granted the right to self-government in matters of choosing religious leaders and conducting economic activities in monasteries.41
In response to the trust shown by the Provisional Government, Buryat Buddhists launched a broad campaign to modernize the social practices of datsans and clergy. S. P. Nesterkin notes that the renewal movement began earlier, namely at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, and was designed, on the one hand, "to develop an ideological basis for preserving the national identity of the colonized peoplesOn the other hand, "reform Buddhism so that it can develop in a new socio-cultural environment"42. After the February Revolution, the Buddhist renewal movement became an organic part of the general political upsurge among the Buryats, which was expressed in numerous actions aimed at presenting to the planned All-Russian Constituent Assembly a formulated program of local self-government and equal participation in elected authorities. The Buddhist Renovationist clergy headed by Agvan Dorzhiev and supported by Hambo Lama Itigelov have started to develop new rules for the development of the State of the Russian Orthodox Church.

40. On the cancellation of the most highly approved July 7, 1889 Regulations of the Committee of Ministers on the withdrawal of spiritual affairs of Lamaites of the Irkutsk province from the jurisdiction of Bandido-Hambo / / RGIA. F. 1276. Op. 14. D. 657.

41. Buddhist clergy. Service to the Provisional Government. On the convocation of a meeting on Buddhist affairs / / RGIA. f. 821. Op. 133. D. 618.

42. Nesterkin S. P. Renovationist movement in Russian Buddhism: two reform projects / / Bulletin of the Buryat Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2013, No. 4, p. 111.

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lama monks who significantly changed the old norms in the direction of avoiding excesses and, consequently, brought the clergy and parishioners closer together:

All lamas were required to wear a uniform vestment made of inexpensive material. Luxury was forbidden in clothing, in the home environment, in the construction of datsans and lama houses. It was forbidden to collect donations from the population for the costs associated with obtaining the theological titles of gebshi and gabji, the use of meat food during khurals; lay people could donate only dairy food and flour products. 43
Of course, the October Revolution and the coming to power of the Bolsheviks did not allow the plans of the Provisional Government to be realized, but the ideal of equality of citizens and religions as the basis of state identity laid down in them played a role in that period as well. The history of the confrontation between the Russian Empire and the Buryat Buddhist community shows a lack of trust in the cultural values of non-Believers, which inevitably generated both a desire to prove loyalty and an understanding of their alienation to the Orthodox state, and therefore could not but hinder the formation and perception of the all-Russian identity of the Buryats.

Bibliography / References

Archive materials

Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA).

F. 796. Office of the Synod.

F. 797. Office of the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod.

F. 821. Department of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

F. 1276. Council of Ministers (1905-1917).

Archive of Orientalists of the IVR RAS.

Materials from the Ukhtomsky E. E. archive Category III.

A. M. Pozdneev Foundation.

Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano Foundation.

43. Gerasimova K. M. Renovationist movement of the Buryat Lamaist clergy. Ulan-Ude: Buryat Book Publishing House, 1964, p. 27.

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Literature

Gerasimova K. M. Renovationist movement of the Buryat Lamaist clergy. Ulan-Ude: Buryat Book Publishing House, 1964.

Diary of Bazar Baradin, a free student at St. Petersburg University, on Buryat datsans (1903-1904) / Podg. to the publ., preface, commentary, index - D. S. Zhamsueva. Ulan-Ude: BSC SB RAS Publishing House, 2013.

Nesterkin S. P. Obnovlencheskoe dvizhenie v rossiiskom buddhizme: dva proekta reform [Renewal movement in Russian Buddhism: Two reform projects]. Vestnik Buryatskogo nauchnogo tsentra SB RAS, 2013, no. 4, pp. 110-116.

Skrynnikova T. D., Varnavsky P. K., Dyrheeva G. A. Buryat ethnicity in the context of socio-cultural modernization (late XIX-first third of XX centuries). Irkutsk: Ottisk Publ., 2003.

Slezkin Yu. Arctic Mirrors: Russia and Small Peoples of the North, Moscow: UFO, 2008.

Tsyrempilov N. V. Buddhism and Empire. Buryat Buddhist Community in Russia (XVIII-early XX century). Ulan-Ude: IMBT SB RAS, 2013.

Archival materials

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv (RGIA) [Russian State Historical Archive].

F. 796. Kantseliariia Sinoda [Office of the Synod].

F. 797. Kantseliariia ober-prokurora Sinoda [Office of the chief procurator of the Synod].

F. 821. Departament dukhovnykh del inostrannykh ispovedanii MVD [Department of spiritual affairs of foreign confessions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs].

F. 1276. Sovet ministrov (1905-1917) [Council of Ministers (1905-1917)].

Arkhiv vostokovedov IVR RAN [Archive of oriental studies at the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences].

Materialy iz arkhiva Ukhtomskogo E.E. [Materials from the E.E. Ukhtomsky Archive] Razriad III.

Fond A.M. Pozdneeva.

Fond Ts.Zh. Zhamtsarano.

Literature

Zhamsueva, D.S. (2013) (ed.) Dnevnik vol'noslushatelia Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta Bazara Baradina po buriatskim datsanam (1903-1904 gg.) [St. Petersburg University auditor Bazaar Baradin's diary on Buryat datsans (1903-1904)]. Ulan-Ude: Izd-vo BNTS SO RАN.

Federal'nyi Zakon "O svobode sovesti i o religioznyх ob'edineniiakh" [On freedom of conscience and religious associations], Rossiiskaia Gazeta. 1.10.1997. S. 2.

Gerasimova, K.M. (1964) Obnovlencheskoe dvizhenie buriatskogo lamaistskogo dukhovenstva [The Renovationist movement of the Buryat Lamaist clergy]. Ulan-Ude: Buriatskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo.

Nesterkin, S.P. (2013) "Obnovlencheskoe dvizhenie v rossilskom buddizme: dva proekta reform" [The Renovationist movement in Russian Buddhism: Two reform projects], Vestnik Buriatskogo nauchnogo tsentra SO RАN 4: 110-116.

Skrynnikova, T.D., Varnavskii, P.K., Dyrkheeva G.А. (2003) Buriatskaia ėtnichnost' v kontekste sotsiokul'turnoi modernizatsii (konets XIX - pervaia tret' XX vekov) [Buryat ethnicity in the context of social and cultural modernization (the end of the nineteenth to the first third of the twentieth century)]. Irkutsk: Ottisk.

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Slezkin, Yu. (2008) Arkticheskie zerkala: Rossiia i malye narody Severa [Arctic mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North]. M.: NLO.

Tsyrempilov, N.V. (2013) Buddizm i imperiia. Buriatskaia buddiiskaia obshchina v Rossii (XVIII-nach. XX v.) [Buddhism and empire: The Buryat Buddhist community in Russia (from the eighteenth to the beginning of the twentieth century)]. Ulan-Ude: IMBT SO RАN.

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